Indigenous people of the Everglades region

The indigenous people of the Everglades region arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15,000 years ago, probably following large game. The Paleo-Indians found an arid landscape that supported plants and animals adapted to desert conditions. Climate changes 6,500 years ago brought a wetter landscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, and the Paleo-Indians slowly adapted to the new conditions. Archaeologists call the cultures that resulted from the adaptations Archaic peoples. They were better suited for environmental changes than their ancestors, and created many tools with the resources they had. Approximately 5,000 years ago, the climate shifted again to cause the regular flooding from Lake Okeechobee that became the Everglades ecosystems.

From the Archaic peoples, two major tribes emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta. The earliest written descriptions of these people come from Spanish explorers who sought to convert and conquer them. Although they lived in complex societies, little evidence of their existence remains today. The Calusa were more powerful in number and political structure. Their territory was centered around modern-day Ft. Myers, and extended as far north as Tampa, as far east as Lake Okeechobee, and as far south as the Keys. The Tequesta lived on the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula around what is today Biscayne Bay and the Miami River. Both societies were well adapted to live in the various ecosystems of the Everglades regions. They often traveled through the heart of the Everglades, though they rarely lived within it.

After more than 200 years of relations with the Spanish, both indigenous societies lost cohesiveness. The remaining Calusa were assimilated into the newer Seminole nation, born of invading Creeks, leftover Timucua, other tribes absorbed by the Creeks, and escaped African slaves. The last mention of the Tequesta was of their transport to Havana in the late 18th century. Seminoles entered the Everglades after being forced there by the Seminole Wars from 1835 to 1842. The U.S. military enforced their exile, and pursued them into the Everglades. This resulted in some of the first recorded explorations of much of the area. Seminoles continue to live in the Everglades region, although they support themselves with casino gaming on six reservations located throughout the state.

Prehistoric peoples

Humans first inhabited the peninsula of Florida approximately 15,000 years ago. The landscape had large dunes and sweeping winds characteristic of an arid region, and pollen samples show foliage was limited to small stands of oak, and scrub bushes. As earth's glacial ice retreated, winds slowed and vegetation became more prevalent and varied. [McCally, p. 34.] The Paleo-Indian diets were dominated by small plants and the wild game available, which included saber-toothed cats, sloths, and spectacled bears. Around 6,500 years ago, the climate of Florida began to change, and the land became much wetter. The large game that were adapted for desert conditions became extinct on the peninsula, probably due to a combination of overhunting and the change of climate. [McCally, p. 35.]

The Paleo-Indians then slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples of the Florida peninsula, most probably due to the extinction of big game. Archaic people were primarily hunter-gatherers who depended on smaller game and fish, and relied more than their predecessors on plants for food. They were able to adapt to the shifting climate and the resulting change of animal and plant populations. Florida experienced a prolonged drought at the onset of the Early Archaic era that lasted until the Middle Archaic period. Although the population decreased overall on the peninsula, the use of tools increased significantly during this time; artifacts have shown that these people used drills, knives, choppers, atlatls, and awls made from stone, antlers, and bone. [McCally, p. 36.] During the Late Archaic period, the climate became wetter again, and by approximately 3000 BCE, the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural development. Florida Indians formed into three distinct but similar cultures, Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee, and Glades, that were named for the bodies of water around which they were centered. [McCally, p. 37–39.]

The Glades culture is divided into three periods based on evidence found in middens. In 1947, archaeologist John Goggin described the three periods after examining shell mounds. He excavated one on Matecumbe Key, another at Gordon Pass near modern-day Naples, and a third south of Lake Okeechobee near modern-day Belle Glade. The Glades I culture, lasting from 500 BCE to 800 CE, was apparently focused around Gordon Pass and is considered the least sophisticated due to the lack of artifacts. What has been found—primarily pottery—is gritty and plain.Goggin, John (October 1947). "A Preliminary Definition of Archaeological Areas and Periods in Florida", "American Antiquity", 13 (2), p. 114–127.] With the advent of a well-established culture in 800 BCE, the Glades II period is characterized by more ornate pottery, wide use of tools throughout the South Florida region, and the appearance of religious artifact at burial sites. By 1200, the Glades III culture exhibited the height of their development. Pottery became ornate enough to be subdivided into types of decoration. More importantly, evidence of an expanding culture is revealed through the development of ceremonial ornaments made from shell, and the construction of large earthworks associated with burial rituals. From the Glades III culture developed two distinct tribes that lived in and near the Everglades: the Calusa and the Tequesta.

Calusa

What is known of the inhabitants of Florida after 1566 was recorded by European explorers and settlers. Juan Ponce de León is credited as the first European to have contact with Florida's indigenous people in 1513. Ponce de León met with hostility from tribes that may have been the Ais and the Tequesta before rounding Cape Sable to meet the Calusa, the largest and most powerful tribe in South Florida. Ponce de León found at least one of the Calusa fluent in Spanish. [Griffin, p. 161.] The explorer assumed the Spanish-speaker was from Hispaniola, but anthropologists have suggested that communication and trade between Calusa and native people in Cuba and the Florida Keys was common, or that Ponce de León was not the first Spaniard to make contact with the native people of Florida. [Hann, p. 4–5.] During his second visit to South Florida, Ponce de León was killed by the Calusa, and the tribe gained a reputation for violence to cause future explorers to avoid them. [Griffin, p. 161–162.] In the more than 200 years the Calusa had relations with the Spanish, they were able to resist the attempts to missionize them.

The Calusa were referred to as "Carlos" by the Spanish, which may have sounded like "Calos", a variation of the Muskogean word "kalo" meaning "black" or "powerful". [Douglas, p. 68.] Much of what is known about the Calusa was provided by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda. Fontaneda was a 13-year-old boy who was the only survivor of a shipwreck off the coast of Florida in 1545. For seventeen years he lived with the Calusa until explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés found him in 1566. Menéndez took Fontaneda to Spain where he wrote about his experiences. Menéndez approached the Calusa with the intention of establishing relations with them to ease the settlement of the future Spanish colony. The chief, or "cacique", was named Carlos by the Spanish. Positions of importance in Calusa society were given the adopted names Carlos and Philip, transliterated from Spanish royal tradition. However, the "cacique" Carlos described by Fontaneda was the most powerful chief during Spanish colonization. Menéndez married his sister in order to facilitate relations between the Spanish and the Calusa. [Griffin, p. 162.] This arrangement was common in societies in South Florida people. Polygamy was a method of solving disputes or settling agreements between rival towns. [Griffin, p. 316.] Menéndez, however, was already married and expressed discomfort with the union. Unable to avoid the marriage, he took Carlos' sister to Havana where she was educated, and where one account reported that she died years later, the marriage never consummated. [Hann, p. 289–290.]

Fontaneda explained in his 1571 memoir that Carlos controlled fifty villages located on Florida's west coast, around Lake Okeechobee (which they called "Mayaimi") and on the Florida Keys (they called "Martires"). Smaller tribes of Ais and Jaega who lived to the east of Lake Okeechobee, paid regular tributes to Carlos. The Spanish suspected the Calusa of harvesting treasures from shipwrecks and distributing the gold and silver between the Ais and Jaega, with Carlos receiving the majority. [McCally, p. 40.] The main village of the Calusa, and home of Carlos, bordered Estero Bay at present-day Mound Key where the Caloosahatchee River meets the Gulf of Mexico. [Griffin, p. 164.] Fontaneda described human sacrifice as a common practice: when the child of a "cacique" died, each resident gave up a child to be sacrificed, and when the "cacique" died, his servants were sacrificed to join him. Each year a Christian was required to be sacrificed to appease a Calusa idol. The building of shell mounds of varying sizes and shapes was also of spiritual significance to the Calusa. In 1895 Frank Hamilton Cushing excavated a massive shell mound on Key Marco that was composed of several constructed terraces hundreds of yards long. Cushing unearthed over a thousand Calusa artifacts. Among them he found tools made of bone and shell, pottery, human bones, masks, and animal carvings made of wood. [Cushing, Frank (December 1896). "Exploration of Ancient Key Dwellers' Remains on the Gulf Coast of Florida", "Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society", 35 (153) , p. 329–448.]

The Calusa, like their predecessors, were hunter-gatherers who existed on small game, fish, turtles, alligators, shellfish, and various plants. [Tebeau, p. 38–41.] Finding little use for the soft limestone, most of their tools were made of bone or teeth, although sharpened reeds were also effective. Weapons consisted of bows and arrows, atlatls, and spears. Most villages were located at the mouths of rivers or on key islands. Canoes were used for transportation, evidenced by shell mounds in and around the Everglades that border canoe trails, and South Florida tribes often canoed through the Everglades, but rarely lived in them. [McCally, p. 39.] Canoe trips to Cuba were also common. [Griffin, p. 171.]

Calusa villages often had more than 200 inhabitants, and their society was organized in a hierarchy. Apart from the "cacique", other strata included priests and warriors. Family bonds promoted the hierarchy and marriage between siblings was common. Fontaneda wrote, "These Indians have no gold, no silver, and less clothing. They go naked except for some breech cloths woven of palms, with which the men cover themselves; the women do the like with certain grass that grows on trees. This grass looks like wool, although it is different from it". [Tebeau, p. 42.] Only one instance of structures was described: Carlos met Menéndez in a large house with windows and room for over a thousand people. [Griffin, p. 165.]

The Spanish found Carlos uncontrollable, as priests and Calusa fought almost constantly. Carlos was killed when a Spanish soldier shot him with a crossbow. [Douglas, p. 171.] Following the death of "cacique" Carlos, leadership of the society passed to two "caciques" who were captured and killed by the Spanish.Hann, John (October 1992). "Political Leadership Among the Natives of Spanish Florida", "The Florida Historical Quarterly", 71 (2), p. 188–208.] Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the occupation of the Spanish ranged from 4,000 to 7,000. [Griffin, p. 170.] The society endured a decline of power and population after Carlos; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000. [Griffin, p. 171.] In the early 18th century, the Calusa came under attack from the Yamassee to the north, and asked to be removed to Cuba where almost 200 died of illness. Soon they were relocated again to the Florida Keys. [Griffin, p. 173.]

Tequesta

Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta (also called Tekesta, Tequeste, and Tegesta). They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade and Broward counties. They may have been controlled by the Calusa, but accounts state that they sometimes refused to comply with the Calusa "caciques" which resulted in war. [Griffin, p. 164.] They rarely lived within the Everglades, like the Calusa, but found the coastal prairies and pine rocklands to the east of the freshwater sloughs habitable. To the north, their territory was bordered by the Ais and Jaega. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered around the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. A large shell mound on the Little River marks where a village once stood.Goggin, John (April 1940). "The Tekesta Indians of Southern Florida", "The Florida Historical Quarterly", 18 (4), p. 274–285.] Though little remains of the Tequesta society, a site of archeological importance called the Miami Circle was discovered in 1998 in downtown Miami, that may be the remains of a Tequesta structure.United States Congress Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (2003). "Miami Circle/Biscayne National Park: report (to accompany S. 111)", "United States Congress Senate Report 108-4".] Its significance has yet to be determined, though archeologists and anthropologists continue to study it. [Merzer, Martin (January 29, 2008). "Access to ancient site may come in near future", "The Miami Herald" (Florida), State and Regional News.]

The Spanish, however, wrote of the Tequesta, that they were greatly feared by sailors, who suspected them of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks. Spanish priests wrote that the Tequesta performed child sacrifices to mark the occasion of the re-establishment a friendship with a neighboring tribe with whom they had been fighting. Like the Calusa, they hunted small game, but they depended more upon roots and less on shellfish in their diets. Cultivated agriculture was not practiced by the Tequesta. However, they were skilled canoeists, and they hunted what Fontaneda described as whales, but were probably manatees, in the open ocean by lassoing them and driving a stake through their snouts.Worth, John (January 1995). "Fontaneda Revisited: Five Descriptions of Sixteenth-Century Florida", "The Florida Historical Quarterly", 73 (3), p. 339–352.]

The first contact with Spanish explorers occurred in 1513 when Ponce de León stopped at a bay he called "Chequescha", or Biscayne Bay. Finding the Tequesta unwelcoming, he left to make contact with the Calusa. Menéndez met the Tequesta in 1565 and maintained a friendly relationship with them, building some houses and setting up a mission. He also took the chief's nephew to Havana to be educated, and the chief's brother to Spain. After Menéndez visited, there are few records of the Tequesta: a reference to them in 1673, and further Spanish contact to convert them. [Griffin, p. 174.] The last reference to the Tequesta during their existence was written in 1743 by a Spanish priest named Father Alaña, who described their ongoing assault under another tribe. The survivors eventually numbered 30, and they were taken to Havana. A British surveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta lived. [Tebeau, p. 43.] Archeologist John Goggin suggested by the time white settlements existed in 1820, any remaining Tequesta were assimilated into the Seminoles. Common description of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 only used the term "Seminoles". [Tebeau, p. 45.]

Seminole

Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. Between the Spanish defeat in the Seven Years' War in 1763 and the end of the American War of Independence in 1783, Florida was occupied by the United Kingdom. The term "Seminolie" was first used by a British Indian agent in a document dated 1771. [Griffin, p. 176.] Their beginnings are vague, but records show that Creeks invaded the Florida peninsula, conquering and assimilating what was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. The mixing of cultures is evident in the language influences present among the Seminoles: various Muskogean languages, notably Hitchiti, and Creek, as well as Timucuan. In the early 19th century an Indian agent explained the Seminoles this way: "The word Seminole means runaway or broken off. Hence ... applicable to all the Indians in the Territory of Florida as all of them ran away ... from the Creek ... Nation". [McReynolds, p. 12.] Linguistically, the term "Seminole" comes from Creek words "Sua" (Sun God), "ma" (mother, although in this connotation it is pejorative), and "ol" (people) to mean "people whom the Sun God does not love", or "accursed". [Drew, Frank (July 1927). "Notes on the origins of the Seminole Indians of Florida", "The Florida Historical Quarterly", 6 (1), p. 21–24.]

Creeks, who were centered in modern-day Alabama and Georgia, were known to incorporate conquered tribes into their own. Some Africans escaping slavery from South Carolina and Georgia fled to Florida, lured by Spanish promises of freedom should they convert to Catholicism, and found their way into the tribe. [Bateman, Rebecca (Winter, 1990). "Africans and Indians: A Comparative Study of the Black Carib and Black Seminole", "Ethnohistory", 37 (1), p. 1–24.] Seminoles originally settled in the northern portion of the territory, but the 1823 Moultrie Creek Treaty forced them to live on a 5-million acre reservation north of Lake Okeechobee. They soon ranged farther south where they numbered approximately 300 in the Everglades region, [Tebeau, p. 50.] including bands of Miccosukees—a similar tribe who spoke a different language—who lived in The Big Cypress. [Griffin, p. 180.] Unlike the Calusa and Tequesta, the Seminoles depended more on agriculture and raised domesticated animals. They hunted for what they ate, and traded with white settlers. They lived in structures called chickees, open-sided palm-thatched huts, probably adapted from the Calusa. [Tebeau, p. 50–51]

In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States in what became the First Seminole War. After Florida became a U.S. territory, conflicts between settlers and Seminoles increased, causing the Second Seminole War from 1835 to 1842, resulting in almost 4,000 Seminoles throughout Florida being displaced or killed. The Seminole Wars pushed the Indians farther south and directly into the Everglades. Those who did not flee into the Everglades were relocated to Oklahoma Indian territory. The Third Seminole War occurred from 1855 to 1859. Over the course of the third conflict, 20 Seminoles were killed and 240 were removed. [Griffin, p. 180.] By 1913, Seminoles in the Everglades numbered no more than 325. They made their villages in hardwood hammocks, islands of hardwood trees that formed in rivers or pineland forests. Seminole diets consisted of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game.Skinner, Alanson (January–March 1913). "Notes on the Florida Seminole", "American Anthropologist", 15 (1), p. 63–77.] Villages were not large, due to the limited size of hammocks, which on average measured between one and ten acres. In the center of the village was a cook-house, and the largest structure was reserved for eating. When the Seminoles lived in northern Florida, they wore animal skin clothing similar to their Creek predecessors. However, the heat of the Everglades was influential in changing their style of dress. Seminoles replaced their heavier buckskins with clothing of unique calico patchwork designs made of lighter cotton, or silk for more formal occasions. [cite web
last = Blackard
first = David
year = 2004
title = Seminole Clothing: Colorful Patchwork
publisher = Seminole Tribe of Florida
url = http://www.seminoletribe.com/culture/clothing.shtml
accessdate = 2008-04-30]

The Seminole Wars increased U.S. military presence in the Everglades that resulted in exploration and mapping of many regions that had not previously been recorded. [Tebeau, p. 63–64.] The military officers who had done the mapping and charting of the Everglades were approached by Thomas Buckingham Smith in 1848 to consult on the feasibility of draining them for agricultural use. [Tebeau, p. 70–71.] Between the end of the Third Seminole War and 1930, the tribe lived in relative isolation. The construction of the Tamiami Trail, from 1928 to 1930, a road that spans from Tampa to Miami and bisects the Everglades, brought a steady stream of white people into their territory that altered their ways of life. The Seminoles instead began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands. They helped to clear land for the town of Everglades, and were "the best fire fighters [the National Park Service] could recruit" when Everglades National Park caught fire in times of drought. [Tebeau, p. 55–56.] As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the Seminoles became closely associated with the Everglades, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a tourist attraction, wrestling alligators and selling craftworks. As of 2008, there were six Seminole reservations throughout Florida featuring casino gaming that support the tribe. [cite web
title = Tourism/Enterprises
year = 2007
publisher = Seminole Tribe of Florida
url = http://www.seminoletribe.com/enterprises/casinos.shtml
accessdate = 2008-04-30]

Bibliography

* Douglas, Marjory [1947] (2002). "The Everglades: River of Grass". R. Bemis Publishing. ISBN 0-91245-144-0
* Griffin, John (2002). "Archeology of the Everglades". University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3
* Hann, John (ed.) (1991). "Missions to the Calusa". University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1966-4
* McCally, David (1999). "The Everglades: An Environmental History". University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5
* Tebeau, Charlton (1968). "Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park". University of Miami Press.

Notes and references

External links

* [http://www.flheritage.com/archaeology/projects/miamicircle/Tour/historicTL.cfm State of Florida timeline of indigenous people in the Miami area]