Sodium fluoroacetate

Sodium fluoroacetate
Sodium fluoroacetate
IUPAC name
Sodium 2-fluoroacetate
Other names
1080
SFA
Sodium monofluoroacetate, compound 1080, 1080
Identifiers
CAS number 62-74-8 N
ChemSpider 5893 YesY
KEGG C18588 N
ChEBI CHEBI:38699 YesY
ChEMBL CHEMBL369611 YesY
RTECS number AH9100000
Jmol-3D images Image 1
Properties
Molecular formula NaFC2H2O2
Molar mass 100.0 g/mol
Appearance Fluffy, colorless to white powder
Melting point

200 °C (325.15 K)
Boiling point

Decomposes
Solubility in water soluble
Hazards
R/S statement R26 R27 R28
Main hazards Toxic, Flammable
Flash point  ?
LD50 0.1–5.0 mg/kg (oral in various species of rats and mice)[1]
 N fluoroacetate (verify) (what is: YesY/N?)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references

Sodium fluoroacetate is the organofluorine chemical compound with the formula FCH2CO2Na. This colourless salt is used as a metabolic poison. It occurs naturally as an anti-herbivore metabolite in various plants but can also be produced synthetically. It is a derivative of fluoroacetic acid, a carboxylic acid. The more common fluorinated acetic acid trifluoroacetic acid and its derivatives are far less toxic.

Contents

History and production

The effectiveness of sodium fluoroacetate as a rodenticide was reported in 1942.[1] The name "1080" refers to the catalogue number of the poison, which became its brand name.[2]

The salt is synthesized by treating sodium chloroacetate with potassium fluoride.[3] Production has declined because the salt is banned in many countries.

Occurrence

Gifblaar.jpg

Sodium fluoroacetate occurs naturally in at least 40 plants in Australia, Brazil, and Africa. It was first identified in the poison leaf (gifblaar) Dichapetalum cymosum by Marais in 1944.[4][5] As early as 1904, colonists in Sierra Leone used extracts of Chailletia toxicaria which also contains fluoroacetic acid or its salts to poison rats.[6][7] It is believed that the compound is even present in tea leaves in tiny amounts.[8] Several native Australian plant genera contain the toxin, including: Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, Oxylobium, Nemcia and Acacia.

Fluoroacetate occurrence in Gastrolobium species

Gastrolobium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. There are over 100 species in this genus, and all but two are native to the south west region of Western Australia, where they are known as "poison peas". Gastrolobium growing in south western Australia are unique in their ability to concentrate fluoroacetate from low fluorine soils.[9]Brush-tailed possums, bush rats and western grey kangaroos native to this region are capable of safely eating plants containing fluoroacetate, but livestock and introduced species from elsewhere in Australia are highly-susceptible to the poison,[10] as are species introduced from outside Australia, such as the red fox. The fact that many Gastrolobium species also have high secondary toxicity to non-native carnivores is thought to have limited the ability of cats to establish populations in locations where the plants form a major part of the understorey vegetation.[11]

The presence of Gastrolobium species in the fields of farmers in Western Australia has often forced these farmers to 'scalp' their land, that is remove the top soil and any poison pea seed which it may contain, and replace it with a new poison pea-free top soil sourced from elsewhere in which to sow crops.[citation needed]. Similarly, following bushfires in north-western Queensland cattlemen have to move livestock before the poisonous Gastrolobium grandiflorum emerges from the ashes.[12]

Toxicology

Fluoroacetate is highly toxic to mammals and insects.[2] The oral dose of fluoroacetate sufficient to be lethal in humans is 2–10 mg/kg.[13]

The toxicity varies with species. The New Zealand Food Safety Authority established lethal doses for a number of species. Dogs, cats and pigs appear to be most susceptible to poisoning.[14]

The enzyme fluoroacetate dehalogenase has been discovered in a soil bacterium, which can detoxify fluoroacetate in the surrounding medium.

Mechanism of action

Fluoroacetate is similar to acetate, which has a pivotal role in cellular metabolism. Fluoroacetate disrupts the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) by combining with coenzyme A to form fluoroacetyl CoA, which reacts with citrate synthase to produce fluorocitrate. A metabolite of fluorocitrate binds very tightly to aconitase, thereby halting the citric acid cycle. This inhibition results in an accumulation of citrate in the blood which deprives cells of energy.[2]

Symptoms

In humans, the symptoms of poisoning normally appear between 30 minutes and three hours after exposure. Initial symptoms typically include nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain; sweating, confusion and agitation follow. In significant poisoning, cardiac abnormalities including tachycardia or bradycardia, hypotension and ECG changes develop. Neurological effects include muscle twitching and seizures; consciousness becomes progressively impaired after a few hours leading to coma. Death is normally due to Ventricular arrhythmias, progressive hypotension unresponsive to treatment, and secondary lung infections.[2]

Symptoms in domestic animals vary: dogs tend to show nervous system signs such as convulsions and uncontrollable running, whilst large herbivores such as cattle and sheep more predominantly show cardiac signs.[15]

Sub-lethal doses of sodium fluoroacetate may cause damage to tissues with high energy needs — in particular, the brain, gonads, heart, lungs and fetus. Sub-lethal doses are typically completely metabolised and excreted within four days.[16]

Treatment

Effective antidotes are unknown. Research in monkeys has shown that the use of glyceryl monoacetate can prevent problems if given after ingestion of sodium fluoroacetate, and this therapy has been tested in domestic animals with some positive results. In theory, glyceryl monoacetate supplies acetate ions to allow continuation of cellular respiration which the sodium fluoroacetate had disrupted.[17]

In clinical cases, use of muscle relaxants, anti-convulsants, mechanical ventilation, and other supportive measures may all be required. Few animals or people have been treated successfully after significant sodium fluoroacetate ingestions.[18]

Pesticide use

Common Brushtail Possum, an invasive pest in New Zealand whose population is controlled with sodium fluoroacetate.

Sodium fluoroacetate is used as a pesticide, especially for mammalian pest species. Farmers and graziers use the poison to protect pastures and crops from various herbivorous mammals. In New Zealand and Australia it is also used to control invasive non-native mammals that predate or compete with native wildlife.

New Zealand

Main article: 1080 usage in New Zealand

Worldwide, New Zealand is the largest user of sodium fluoroacetate.[13] This compound is used in New Zealand to control possums, rats and rabbits.[19] The largest users are the Animal Health Board and the Department of Conservation.

United States

Sodium fluoroacetate is used in the United States to kill coyotes.[20] Prior to 1972 when the EPA cancelled all uses, sodium fluoroacetate was used much more widely as a cheap[21] predacide and rodenticide; in 1985, the restricted-use "toxic collar" approval was finalized.[22]

Australia

Sign warning of poisonous sodium fluoroacetate baits

In Australia, sodium fluoroacetate was first used in rabbit control programmes in the early 1950s, where it is regarded as having "a long history of proven effectiveness and safety". [23] It is seen as a critical component of the integrated pest control programmes for rabbits, foxes, wild dogs and feral pigs. Since 1994, broad-scale fox control using 1080 meat baits in Western Australia has significantly improved the population numbers of several native species and led, for the first time, to three species of mammals being taken off the state's endangered species list. In Australia, minor direct mortality of native animal populations from 1080 baits is regarded as acceptable, compared to the predatory and competitive effects of those introduced species being managed using 1080.[24]

Western Shield is a project to boost populations of endangered mammals in south-west Australia conducted by the DEC. The project entails distributing fluoroacetate baited meat from the air to kill predators. Wild dogs and foxes will readily eat the baited meat. Cats pose a greater difficulty as they are generally not interested in scavenging.[citation needed] However, an Australian RSPCA commissioned study criticized 1080, calling it an inhumane killer.[25] Some Western Australian herbivores have, by natural selection, developed partial immunity to the effects of fluoroacetate,[26] so that its use as a poison has the advantage of reduced collateral damage to native herbivores.

In 2011, over 3,750 toxic baits containing 3ml of 1080 were laid across 520 hectares between the Tasmanian settlements of Southport and Hobart as part of an ongoing attempt at the world's biggest invasive animal eradication operation – the eradication of red foxes from the island state. The baits were spread at the rate of one per 10 hectares and were buried, to mitigate the risk to non-target wildlife species like Tasmanian devils.[27]

Native animals are also targetted with 1080. During May 2005 up to 200,000 Bennetts wallabies on King Island were intentionally killed in one of the largest coordinated 1080 poisonings seen in Tasmania [28];[29]

Other countries

1080 is used as a rodenticide in Mexico, Japan and Israel.[30][2]

Environmental impacts

Water

Since 1080 is highly water soluble, it will be dispersed and diluted in the environment by rain and stream water. Sodium monofluoroacetate at the concentrations found in the environment after standard baiting operations will break down in natural water containing living organisms, such as aquatic plants or micro-organisms. Water-monitoring surveys, conducted during the 1990s, have confirmed that significant contamination of waterways following aerial application of 1080 bait is unlikely.[31] Research by NIWA showed that 1080 deliberately placed in small streams for testing was undetectable after only 8 hours.[32]

In New Zealand, water is routinely monitored after aerial application of 1080 and water samples are collected immediately after application when there is the highest possibility of detecting contamination.[33] Of 2442 water samples tested in New Zealand between 1990 and 2010, following aerial 1080 operations: 96.5% had no detectable 1080 at all; and of all the samples, only six were equal to, or above the Ministry of Health level for drinking water and none of these came from drinking water supplies.[34] Of 592 samples taken from human or stock drinking supplies, only four contained detectable 1080 residues at 0.1ppb (1 sample) and 0.2 ppb (3 samples) - all well below the Ministry of Health level of 2 ppb.

Soil

The fate of 1080 in the soil has been well-established by research defining the degradation of naturally-occurring fluoroacetate (Oliver, 1977). Sodium monofluoroacetate is water soluble and residues from uneaten baits leach into the soil where they are degraded to non-toxic metabolites by soil microorganisms, including bacteria (Pseudomonas) and the common soil fungus (Fusarium solani) (David and Gardiner, 1966; Bong, Cole and Walker, 1979; Walker and Bong, 1981).[35]

Birds

Although it is now infrequent, individual aerial 1080 operations can still sometimes affect local bird populations if not carried out with sufficient care. In New Zealand, individuals from 19 species of native birds and 13 species of introduced birds have been found dead after aerial 1080 drops. Most of these recorded bird deaths were associated with only four operations in the 1970s that used poor quality carrot baits with many small fragments.[36] On the other hand, many native New Zealand bird populations have been successfully protected by reducing predator numbers through aerial 1080 operations. Whio[37], kererū[38], kiwi[39], kākā[40], kārearea[41]tomtits[42], New Zealand robins[43], kākāriki and mōhua[44] have all responded well to pest control programmes using aerial 1080 operations, with increased chick and adult survival, and increases in population size. During an aerial possum control operation in Ōkārito conducted by DOC and AHB in August 2011, seven of 38 tagged kea, the endemic alpine parrot, were killed. [45] Because of their omnivorous feeding habits and inquisitive behaviour, kea are known to be particularly suceptible to 1080 poison baits, as well as other environmental poisons like the zinc and lead used in the flashings of backcountry huts and farm buildings.[46]

Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are susceptible to 1080, although much less sensitive to it than mammals.[47] Amphibian and reptile species that have been tested in Australia are generally more tolerant to 1080 poison than are most other animals.[48] McIlroy (1992) calculated that even if lizards fed entirely on insects or other animals poisoned with 1080 they could never ingest enough poison to receive a lethal dose.[49] Laboratory trials in New Zealand simulating worst-case scenarios indicate that both Leiopelma archeyi and L. hochstetteri can absorb 1080 from contaminated water, substrate, or prey. The chance of this occurring in the wild is ameliorated by a variety of factors, including frog ecology. Captive maintenance and contamination problems rendered parts of this study inconclusive. Further population monitoring is recommended to provide more conclusive evidence than provided by this single study.[50] In New Zealand, the secondary poisoning of feral cats and stoats following 1080 operations is likely to have a positive effect on the recovery of native skink and gecko populations.[51] Controlling rabbits[52] and possums[53], which compete for food with skinks and geckos, may also have benefits.

Fish

Fish generally have very low sensitivity to 1080. Toxicity tests have been conducted in the USA on bluegill sunfish, rainbow trout and the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna. Tests at different 1080 concentrations on sunfish (for four days) and Daphnia (two days) showed that 1080 is "practically non-toxic" (a US EPA classification) to both these species. Rainbow trout were also tested over four days at four concentrations ranging from 39 to 170 mg 1080 per litre. From these results an LC50 can be calculated, which is the concentration of 1080 per litre of water which theoretically kills 50% of the test fish. The LC50 for rainbow trout was calculated to be 54 mg 1080/litre - far in excess of any known concentration of 1080 found in water samples following 1080 aerial operations. It is, therefore, reasonable to conclude that 1080 is most unlikely to cause mortality in freshwater fish.[54]

Invertebrates

Insects are susceptible to 1080 poisoning. Some field trials in New Zealand have shown that insect numbers can be temporarily reduced within 20 cm of toxic baits, but numbers return to normal levels within six days of the bait being removed.[55] Other trials have found no evidence that insect communities are negatively affected.[56] Another New Zealand study showed that wētā, native ants and kōura (freshwater crayfish) excrete 1080 within one to two weeks.[57] There is also evidence that 1080 aerial operations in New Zealand can benefit invertebrate species.[58] Both possums and rats are a serious threat to endemic invertebrates in New Zealand, where around 90 per cent of spiders and insects are endemic and have evolved without predatory mammals.[59] In a study on the diet of brushtail possums, 47.5 per cent of possum faeces examined between January 1979 and June 1983 contained invertebrates, mostly insects.[60] One possum can eat up to 60 rare native land snails (Powelliphanta spp.) in one night[61]

References

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  5. ^ Marais JCS (1944). "Monofluoroacetic acid, the toxic principle of "gifblaar" Dichapetalum cymosum". Onderstepoort Jour. Vet. Sci. Animal Ind. 20: 67. 
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  15. ^ Gupta, Ramesh (2007). Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 556. ISBN 0-12-370467-7. http://books.google.com/?id=NgMX__L3q40C&pg=PA556#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 2010 Jul 28. 
  16. ^ Eason; Frampton, Henderson, Thomas, Morgan (1993 October 28). King, Carolyn. ed. "Sodium monofluoroacetate and alternative toxins for possum control". New Zealand Journal of Zoology (Wellington, New Zealand: The Royal Society of New Zealand) 20 (3): 330. ISSN 0301-4223. http://books.google.com/?id=ACI4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA330#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 2010 Jul 2. "Sodium monofluoroacetate was readily absorbed and rapidly eliminated in all species: only traces were detectable in sheep muscle after 72-96 h" 
  17. ^ Brent, Jeffrey (2005). Critical care toxicology: diagnosis and management of the critically poisoned patient. St. Louis: Mosby. p. 970. ISBN 0-8151-4387-7. http://books.google.com/?id=WuA4LsWXXWEC&pg=PA970#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 2010 Jul 28. "Glycerol monoacetate, 0.1 to 0.5 mL/kg/hr, as a Krebs cycle substrate replacement, has prolonged survival in a primate model, but it also may aggravate toxicity and seems to be effective only early in the course." 
  18. ^ Rippe, James M.; Irwin, Richard S. (2008). Irwin and Rippe's intensive care medicine. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health / Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1666–1667. ISBN 0-7817-9153-7. http://books.google.com/?id=ooH1nH81_h4C&pg=PA1666#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 2010 Jul 28. "General supportive measures are paramount and aimed at maintaining the airway, breathing, and circulation. Activated charcoal should be administered in all suspected ingestions presenting within 1 to 2 hours after ingestion. Seizures should be treated with benzodiazepines or barbiturates. Hypocalcemia and prolonged QTc intervals may require calcium and magnesium supplementation. Various treatments have been tested in animals [149,161-163]. The most useful agent appears to be glyceryl monoacetate, which provides excess acetate as a substrate for the TCA cycle. The clinical use of glyceryl monoacetate remains unproven, however." 
  19. ^ Green W (July 2004). "The use of 1080 for pest control" (pdf). The Animal Health Board and The Department of Conservation. http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/use-of-1080-04.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-16. 
  20. ^ "Wildlife Services Factsheet May 2010: The Livestock Protection Collar" (PDF). U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). http://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/wildlife_damage/content/printable_version/fs_livestock_protection_collar.pdf. Retrieved 2010 Jul 30. "Coyotes are the leading cause of predation losses for sheep and goat producers. ... The LPC is registered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a restricted use product." 
  21. ^ Leydet, François (1988). The coyote: defiant songdog of the West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-8061-2123-8. http://books.google.com/?id=7KIfDNJLyuwC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 2010 Jul 30. "So it was not humaneness that convinced PARC that Compound 1080 was the ideal tool for coyote control. Sodium monofluoroacetate had other attractions. It was cheap, and tiny amounts were effective: all you needed was sixteen grams, costing twenty-eight cents, to treat 1000 pounds of horsemeat, or enough, theoretically, to kill 11,428 coyotes at 1.4 ounces of bait meat per lethal dose." 
  22. ^ "Sodium Fluoroacetate: Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) Fact Sheet" (PDF). Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/3073fact.pdf. Retrieved 2010 Jul 30. "Sodium fluoroacetate is an acute toxicant predacide which is used against coyotes which prey on sheep and goats. ... Sodium fluoroacetate is a restricted use pesticide which may be used only by trained, certified applicators and which is only registered for use in livestock protection collars. Sodium fluoroacetate will retain the restricted use classification imposed by the Agency in 1978 due to its high acute toxicity and the need for highly specialized applicator training. ... Development and use of sodium fluoroacetate as a predacide and rodenticide in the U.S. began in the 1940s prior to the 1947 enactment of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act by which requirements for federal registration of pesticide products were instituted. In 1964 and again in 1971, the use of poisons to control predatory mammals were reviewed by selected committees. In 1972, EPA cancelled all registered predator control uses of sodium fluoroacetate, sodium cyanide, and strychnine. In 1977, the US Department of the Interior (USDI) applied for an Experimental Use Permit (EUP) to investigate the potential risks and benefits associated with the use of sodium fluoroacetate in "toxic collars" which would be placed on the necks of sheep and goats. ... In 1981, EPA was petitioned by the USDI and livestock interests to revisit the 1972 predacide cancellation decision with respect to sodium fluoroacetate. ... In 1985, EPA granted a registration to USDI for a toxic collar product which was transferred in 1986 to the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). ... The rodenticide uses of sodium fluoroacetate were cancelled due to lack of supporting data. In 1989, all "special local needs" registrations issued under § 24(c) of FIFRA were cancelled, and all pending applications for Federal registration were denied by August 1990." 
  23. ^ Department of Agriculture, Department of Conservation and Land Management, Department of Health, 2002: 1080 Summary information. Miscellaneous Publication No. 011/2002.
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  28. ^ http://www.kangaroo-protection-coalition.com/wallaby-poison.html
  29. ^ http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1438832.htm
  30. ^ 1080 questions and answers - Department of Conservation (retrieved 2011): http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/methods-of-control/1080-pest-control/1080-questions-and-answers/#othercountries
  31. ^ Eason, C.T. (2002). Technical Review of Sodium Monofluoroacetate (1080) Toxicology. ISBN 0-478-09346-2. http://www.ahb.org.nz/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=BUUHSpPIJ5s%3D&tabid=316. Retrieved 2011-09-30. 
  32. ^ Suren, A.; Lambert, P. (12006). "Do toxic baits containing sodium fluroacetate (1080) affect fish and invertebrate communities when they fall into streams?". http://www.mendeley.com/research/toxic-baits-containing-sodium-fluroacetate-1080-affect-fish-invertebrate-communities-fall-streams/. 
  33. ^ Eason, C.T.; Temple, W. (2002). Water sampling for sodium fluoroacetate (1080) - how much is enough?. ISBN 0-478-09346-2. http://www.1080facts.co.nz/upload/download_files/water%20sampling.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-30. 
  34. ^ unpublished data, Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd
  35. ^ Eason, C.T. (1996). [http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7105/4066_Easonetal_s13395.pdf SODIUM MONOFLUOROACETATE (1080) WATER-RESIDUE ANALYSIS AFTER LARGE-SCALE POSSUM CONTROL]. http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7105/4066_Easonetal_s13395.pdf. 
  36. ^ Evaluating the use of 1080: http://www.pce.parliament.nz/assets/Uploads/PCE-1080.pdf
  37. ^ Tongariro Forest whio: http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/birds/wetland-birds/blue-duck-whio/docs-work/tongariro-forest-whio/
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  39. ^ Tongariro Kiwi Sanctuary: http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/birds/land-birds/kiwi/kiwi/docs-work/tongariro-kiwi-sanctuary/
  40. ^ MacKay, Scot (27 April 2011). "1080 drop boosts Waitutu kaka: DOC". The Southland Times. http://www.stuff.co.nz/southland-times/news/4930340/1080-drop-boosts-Waitutu-kaka-DOC. Retrieved 12 November 2011. 
  41. ^ Seaton, R et al. (New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 2009): http://www.nzes.org.nz/nzje/new_issues/NZJEcol33_1_32.pdf
  42. ^ POWLESLAND, KNEGTMANS , STYCHE: MORTALITY OF TOMTITS (New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 2000): http://www.nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol24_2_161.pdf
  43. ^ Powlesland, R.G., Knegtmans, J.W. and Marshall, I.S.J. (New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 1999): http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7074/3474_Powleslandetal__s10663.pdf
  44. ^ Operation Ark: Three year progress report (2007): http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/land-and-freshwater/land/operation-ark/
  45. ^ "Seven keas dead in wake of 1080 work". Otago Daily Times. 12 September 2011. http://www.odt.co.nz/regions/west-coast/177187/seven-keas-dead-wake-1080-work. Retrieved 12 November 2011. 
  46. ^ Lead poisoning in kea: http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/wildlife-health/nz-wildlife-diseases/#lead
  47. ^ Evaluating the use of 1080 (Parliamentary Commissioner For The Environment, 2011): http://www.pce.parliament.nz/assets/Uploads/PCE-1080.pdf
  48. ^ The Sensitivity of Australian Animals to 1080 Poison VIII.* Amphibians and Reptiles (McIlroy et al. 1985): http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WR9850113.htm
  49. ^ McIlroy, J.C. 1992: Secondary poisoning hazards associated with 1080-treated carrot baiting campaigns against rabbits, 1992
  50. ^ Assessment of the impact of 1080 on the native frogs Leiopelma archeyi and L. hochstetteri (Perfect, A.J & Bell, B.D. 2005): http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/drds209.pdf
  51. ^ Predation of lizards by feral house cats (Felis catus) and ferrets (Mustela furo) in the tussock grassland of Otago (Middlemiss, A - University of Otago, 1995): http://otago.ourarchive.ac.nz/handle/10523/126
  52. ^ Conserving dryland lizards by reducing predator-mediated apparent competition and direct competition with introduced rabbits (Norbury, G. 2001 - Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 1350-1361): http://www.jstor.org/pss/827304
  53. ^ Possums and possum control; effects on lowland forest ecosystems - Atkinson et al, 1995: http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sfc001.pdf
  54. ^ The use of 1080 for pest control - Comparison of species sensitivity (NZ Department of Conservation website - retrieved August 2011): http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/the-use-of-1080-for-pest-control/4-information-about-1080/4_1-key-facts/
  55. ^ Impacts of 1080-poisoning for possum control on non-target invertebrates - E. B. Spurr (Dept. of Conservation, 1996): http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sfc021.pdf
  56. ^ Booth, L et al THE TOXICITY OF SODIUM MONOFLUOROACETATE (1080) TO HUBERIA STRIATA, A NEW ZEALAND NATIVE ANT(New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 1999): http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7099/3451_BoothWickstrom__s10640.pdf
  57. ^ Eason, C.T., Gooneratne, R., Wright, G., Pierce, R., Framptom, C.M. (1993). The fate of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in water, mammals, and invertebrates. Proceedings of 46th New Zealand Plant Protection Society Conference: 297-301
  58. ^ 1080 poison benefits snails: http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/methods-of-control/1080-poison-for-pest-control/videos-about-1080/1080-poison-helps-native-snails/
  59. ^ Landcare Research website: http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/education/insects_spiders/
  60. ^ Cowan, P. E,; Moeed, A.. "Invertebrates in the diet of brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, in lowland podocarp/broadleaf forest, Orongorongo Valley, Wellington, New Zealand". New Zealand Science JournalsVol. 14. No. 2. Wellington, New Zealand: The Royal Society of New Zealand; 1987 [cited November 13, 2011]. p. 163–177. ISSN 0301-4223
  61. ^ Te Ara Encyclopaedia of New Zealand website: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/possums/4

Further reading

External links


v · d · ePest control: rodenticides
Anticoagulants/
vitamin K antagonists

coumarins/4-Hydroxycoumarins: 1st generation (Warfarin, Coumatetralyl) • 2nd generation (Brodifacoum, Difenacoum, Flocoumafen)

1,3-Indandiones: Chlorophacinone • Pindone • Diphacinone

other: Difethialone
Convulsants
Crimidine • Phenylsilatrane • Strychnine • Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine
Calciferols
Inorganic compounds
Organochlorine
Organophosphorus
Phosacetim
Metabolic poisons
Bromethalin • Fluoroacetamide • 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (Gliftor) • Sodium fluoroacetate
Other
α-Naphthylthiourea • Norbormide • Pyrinuron • Scilliroside

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Look at other dictionaries:

  • sodium fluoroacetate — [flôr΄ō as′ə tāt, floor΄ō as′ə tāt] n. a powder, CH2FCOONa, used as a rodent poison …   English World dictionary

  • sodium fluoroacetate — noun : a poisonous powdery compound CH2FCOONa used as a rodenticide called also 1080 * * * /floor oh as i tayt , flawr oh , flohr oh /, Chem. a white, amorphous, water soluble, poisonous powder, C2H2FO2Na, used as a rodenticide. Also called 1080 …   Useful english dictionary

  • sodium fluoroacetate — sodium flu·o·ro·ace·tate .flu̇( ə)r ō as ə .tāt n a poisonous powdery compound C2H2FNaO2 * * * the sodium salt of fluoroacetic acid, a toxin found in the South African tree Dichapetalum cymosum; it is used as a rodenticide, but is also poisonous… …   Medical dictionary

  • sodium fluoroacetate — noun Date: 1945 a poisonous powdery compound C2H2FNaO2 compare 1080 …   New Collegiate Dictionary

  • sodium fluoroacetate — /floor oh as i tayt , flawr oh , flohr oh /, Chem. a white, amorphous, water soluble, poisonous powder, C2H2FO2Na, used as a rodenticide. Also called 1080. [1940 45; FLUORO + ACETATE] * * * …   Universalium

  • sodium fluoroacetate — so′dium fluor•o•ac′e•tate [[t]ˌflʊər oʊˈæs ɪˌteɪt, ˌflɔr oʊ , ˌfloʊr oʊ [/t]] n. chem. a white, amorphous, water soluble, poisonous powder, C2H2FO2Na, used as a rodenticide Also called 1080 • Etymology: 1940–45 …   From formal English to slang

  • Fluoroacétate de sodium — Général Nom IUPAC 2 fluoroacétate de sodium Synonymes …   Wikipédia en Français

  • fluoroacetate — see SODIUM FLUOROACETATE * * * flu·o·ro·ac·e·tate (floor″o asґə tāt) a salt of fluoroacetic acid; the sodium salt and others are used in rodenticides and are toxic to many mammalian species. See fluoroacetate poisoning, under… …   Medical dictionary

  • sodium fluoroacetamide — a sodium salt related chemically to sodium fluoroacetate, also used as a rodenticide and causing poisoning similar to fluoroacetate poisoning in many mammals …   Medical dictionary

  • fluoroacetate — |flu̇(ə)(ˌ)rō, |flōr(ˌ)ō, |flȯ(ˌ)rō+ noun Etymology: fluor + acetate : a salt or ester of fluoroacetic acid; especially : sodium fluoracetate …   Useful english dictionary

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