Evidence

Evidence

Evidence in its broadest sense includes everything that is used to determine or demonstrate the truth of an assertion. Giving or procuring evidence is the process of using those things that are either (a) presumed to be true, or (b) were themselves proven via evidence, to demonstrate an assertion's truth. Evidence is the currency by which one fulfills the burden of proof.

Many issues surround evidence, making it the subject of much discussion and disagreement. In addition to its subtlety, evidence plays an important role in many academic disciplines, including science and law, adding to the discourse surrounding it.

An important distinction in the field of evidence is that between circumstantial evidence and direct evidence, or evidence that suggests truth as opposed to evidence that directly proves truth. Many have seen this line to be less-than-clear and significant arguments have arisen over the difference.

Contents

Burden of proof

The burden of proof is the burden of providing sufficient evidence to shift a conclusion from an oppositional opinion. Whoever does not carry the burden of proof carries the benefit of assumption. Whoever bears the burden of proof must present sufficient evidence to move the conclusion to their own position. The burden of proof must be fulfilled both by establishing positive evidence and negating oppositional evidence.

There are two primary burden-of-proof considerations:

  1. The question of on whom the burden rests.
  2. The question of the degree of certitude the proof must support. This depends on both the quantity and quality of evidence and the nature of the point under contention. Some common degrees of certitude include the most probable event, reasonable doubt, and beyond the shadow of a doubt.

Conclusions (from evidence) may be subject to criticism from a perceived failure to fulfill the burden of proof.

Problems in evidence

The theory of evidence is a field wrought with dispute. Many of these disputes stem from the limits of human knowing, a field known as epistemology. Possibly the most salient question of evidence is how, if, and what, one can know. (Or, in other words, the question is to what extent is it even possible to fulfill the burden of proof.) This is the question of evidence's limits. Some[who?] believe all evidence to be circumstantial, denying the possibility of direct evidence.

To help deal with this problem, many fields have found it useful to talk about levels of evidence and certainty, particularly the field of law.

Evidence in science

In scientific research evidence is accumulated through observations of phenomena that occur in the natural world, or which are created as experiments in a laboratory or other controlled conditions. Scientific evidence usually goes towards supporting or rejecting a hypothesis.

One must always remember that the burden of proof is on the person making a contentious claim. Within science, this translates to the burden resting on presenters of a paper, in which the presenters argue for their specific findings. This paper is placed before a panel of judges where the presenter must defend the thesis against all challenges.

When evidence is contradictory to predicted expectations, the evidence and the ways of making it are often closely scrutinized (see experimenter's regress) and only at the end of this process is the hypothesis rejected: this can be referred to as 'refutation of the hypothesis'. The rules for evidence used by science are collected systematically in an attempt to avoid the bias inherent to anecdotal evidence.

Evidence in law

FBI Evidence Response Team

Evidence forms the very foundation of any legal system, without which law would be subject to the whims of those with power.

In law, the production and presentation of evidence depends first on establishing on whom the burden of proof lies. Admissible evidence is that which a court receives and considers for the purposes of deciding a particular case. Two primary burden-of-proof considerations exist in law. The first is on whom the burden rests. In many, especially Western, courts, the burden of proof is placed on the prosecution. The second consideration is the degree of certitude proof must reach, depending on both the quantity and quality of evidence. These degrees are different for criminal and civil cases, the former requiring evidence beyond a reasonable doubt, the latter considering only which side has the preponderance of evidence, or whether the proposition is more likely true or false. The decision maker, often a jury, but sometimes a judge, decides whether the burden of proof has been fulfilled.

After deciding who will carry the burden of proof, evidence is first gathered and then presented before the court:

Gathering evidence

In criminal investigation, rather than attempting to prove an abstract or hypothetical point, the evidence gatherers attempt to determine who is responsible for a criminal act. The focus of criminal evidence is to connect physical evidence and reports of witnesses to a specific person.

Evidence before the court

Presenting evidence before the court differs from the gathering of evidence in important ways. Gathering evidence may take many forms; presenting evidence that tend to prove or disprove the point at issue is strictly governed by rules. Failure to follow these rules leads to any number of consequences. In law, certain policies allow (or require) evidence to be excluded from consideration based either on indicia relating to reliability, or broader social concerns. Testimony (which tells) and exhibits (which show) are the two main categories of evidence presented at a trial or hearing. In the United States, evidence in federal court is admitted or excluded under the Federal Rules of Evidence.[1]

Types of evidence

See also

References

External links

  • ASTM E141 Standard Practice for Acceptance of Evidence Based on the Results of Probability Sampling

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  • evidence — ev·i·dence 1 / e və dəns, ˌdens/ n [Medieval Latin evidentia, from Latin, that which is obvious, from evident evidens clear, obvious, from e out of, from + videns, present participle of videre to see]: something that furnishes or tends to furnish …   Law dictionary

  • ÉVIDENCE — Elle est souvent définie comme une certitude immédiate: si un objet est donné, si l’on a présenté à l’esprit la signification d’une proposition bien formée, on n’en doute point, on les saisit d’emblée, ils paraissent évidents. En fait, le… …   Encyclopédie Universelle

  • Evidence — Ev i*dence, n. [F. [ e]vidence, L. Evidentia. See {Evident}.] 1. That which makes evident or manifest; that which furnishes, or tends to furnish, proof; any mode of proof; the ground of belief or judgement; as, the evidence of our senses;… …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • evidence — ev‧i‧dence [ˈevdns] noun [uncountable] LAW information or facts given in a court of law to prove that someone is guilty: • He refused to give evidence at the trial. * * * evidence UK US /ˈevɪdəns/ noun [U] LAW ► objects, documents, official… …   Financial and business terms

  • Evidence — Основная информация Полное имя …   Википедия

  • evidence — n Evidence, testimony, deposition, affidavit are, in their legal senses, closely related but not synonymous terms. The last three designate forms of evidence, or material submitted to a competent legal tribunal as a means of ascertaining where… …   New Dictionary of Synonyms

  • evidence — ► NOUN 1) information or signs indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid. 2) Law information used to establish facts in a legal investigation or admissible as testimony in a law court. ► VERB ▪ be or show evidence of. ● in… …   English terms dictionary

  • evidence — Evidence. s. f. Qualité de ce qui est évident. Cela paroist avec évidence. l évidence d une proposition, d une verité, d une fausseté. On dit, Mettre en évidence, pour dire, Faire connoistre clairement, manifestement …   Dictionnaire de l'Académie française

  • Evidence — (* 10. Dezember 1976 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien; bürgerlich Michael Perretta) ist ein US amerikanischer Rapper und Hip Hop Produzent. Er ist Mitglied der Gruppe Dilated Peoples …   Deutsch Wikipedia

  • evidence — [ev′ə dəns, ev′ədens΄] n. [ME < OFr < L evidentia < evidens, clear, evident < e , from + videns, prp. of videre, to see: see WISE2] 1. Archaic the condition of being evident 2. something that makes another thing evident; indication;… …   English World dictionary

  • Evidence — Ev i*dence, v. t. [imp. & p. p. {Evidenced}; p. pr. & vb. n. {Evidencing}.] To render evident or clear; to prove; to evince; as, to evidence a fact, or the guilt of an offender. Milton. [1913 Webster] …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

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