Noble gas

Noble gas
Group 18
Period 1 Helium discharge tube
2
He
2 Neon discharge tube
10
Ne
3 Argon discharge tube
18
Ar
4 Krypton discharge tube
36
Kr
5 Xenon discharge tube
54
Xe
6 Radon discharge tube
86
Rn

The noble gases are a group of chemical elements with very similar properties: under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases, with very low chemical reactivity. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn).

For the first six periods of the periodic table, the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table. However, this no longer holds in the seventh period (due to relativistic effects): the next member of group 18, ununoctium, is probably not a noble gas.[1] Instead, group 14 member ununquadium exhibits noble-gas-like properties.[2]

The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be "full", giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions, and it has only been possible to prepare a few hundred noble gas compounds. The melting and boiling points for each noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10 °C (18 °F); consequently, they are liquids over only a small temperature range.

Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation. Helium is typically separated from natural gas, and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration. A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over 180 feet (55 m) to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia, the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen, and nitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons.

Contents

History

Noble gas is translated from the German noun Edelgas, first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann[3] to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity. The name makes an analogy to the term "noble metals", which also have low reactivity. The noble gases have also been referred to as inert gases, but this label is now deprecated as many noble gas compounds are now known.[4] Rare gases is another term that was used,[5] but this is also inaccurate because argon forms a fairly considerable part (0.94% by volume, 1.3% by mass) of the Earth's atmosphere.[6]

A line spectrum chart of the visible spectrum showing sharp lines on top.
Helium was first detected in the Sun due to its characteristic spectral lines.

Pierre Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer discovered a new element on August 18, 1868 while looking at the chromosphere of the Sun, and named it helium after the Greek word for the Sun, ήλιος (ílios or helios).[7] No chemical analysis was possible at the time, but helium was later found to be a noble gas. Before them, in 1784, the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish had discovered that air contains a small proportion of a substance less reactive than nitrogen.[8] A century later, in 1895, Lord Rayleigh discovered that samples of nitrogen from the air were of a different density than nitrogen resulting from chemical reactions. Along with scientist William Ramsay at University College, London, Lord Rayleigh theorized that the nitrogen extracted from air was mixed with another gas, leading to an experiment that successfully isolated a new element, argon, from the Greek word αργός (argós, "inactive").[8] With this discovery, they realized an entire class of gases was missing from the periodic table. During his search for argon, Ramsay also managed to isolate helium for the first time while heating cleveite, a mineral. In 1902, having accepted the evidence for the elements helium and argon, Dmitri Mendeleev included these noble gases as group 0 in his arrangement of the elements, which would later become the periodic table.[9]

Ramsay continued to search for these gases using the method of fractional distillation to separate liquid air into several components. In 1898, he discovered the elements krypton, neon, and xenon, and named them after the Greek words κρυπτός (kryptós, "hidden"), νέος (néos, "new"), and ξένος (xénos, "stranger"), respectively. Radon was first identified in 1898 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn,[10] and was named radium emanation, but was not considered a noble gas until 1904 when its characteristics were found to be similar to those of other noble gases.[11] Rayleigh and Ramsay received the 1904 Nobel Prizes in Physics and in Chemistry, respectively, for their discovery of the noble gases;[12][13] in the words of J. E. Cederblom, then president of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, "the discovery of an entirely new group of elements, of which no single representative had been known with any certainty, is something utterly unique in the history of chemistry, being intrinsically an advance in science of peculiar significance".[13]

The discovery of the noble gases aided in the development of a general understanding of atomic structure. In 1895, French chemist Henri Moissan attempted to form a reaction between fluorine, the most electronegative element, and argon, one of the noble gases, but failed. Scientists were unable to prepare compounds of argon until the end of the 20th century, but these attempts helped to develop new theories of atomic structure. Learning from these experiments, Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed in 1913 that the electrons in atoms are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus, and that for all noble gases except helium the outermost shell always contains eight electrons.[11] In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis formulated the octet rule, which concluded an octet of electrons in the outer shell was the most stable arrangement for any atom; this arrangement caused them to be unreactive with other elements since they did not require any more electrons to complete their outer shell.[14]

In 1962 Neil Bartlett discovered the first chemical compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate.[15] Compounds of other noble gases were discovered soon after: in 1962 for radon, radon fluoride,[16] and in 1963 for krypton, krypton difluoride (KrF2).[17] The first stable compound of argon was reported in 2000 when argon fluorohydride (HArF) was formed at a temperature of 40 K (−233.2 °C; −387.7 °F).[18]

In December 1998, scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research working in Dubna, Russia bombarded plutonium (Pu) with calcium (Ca) to produce a single atom of element 114,[19] ununquadium (Uuq).[20] Preliminary chemistry experiments have indicated this element may be the first superheavy element to show abnormal noble-gas-like properties, even though it is a member of group 14 on the periodic table.[21] In October 2006, scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory successfully created synthetically ununoctium (Uuo), the seventh element in group 18,[22] by bombarding californium (Cf) with calcium (Ca).[23]

Chemical properties

An atomic shell diagram with neon core, 2 electrons in the inner shell and 8 in the outer shell.
Neon, like all noble gases, has a full valence shell. Noble gases have eight electrons in the outermost shell, except in the case of helium, which has two.

The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions. They were once labeled group 0 in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds. However, it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds, causing this label to fall into disuse.[11]

Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell
2 helium 2
10 neon 2, 8
18 argon 2, 8, 8
36 krypton 2, 8, 18, 8
54 xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
86 radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons.[24] However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases.

Noble gas notation

As a result of a full shell, the noble gases can be used in conjunction with the electron configuration notation to form the noble gas notation. To do this, the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first, and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward. For example, the electron notation of mercury is 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d10, and the noble gas notation is [Xe]6s24f145d10. This notation makes it easier to identify elements, and is shorter than writing out the full notation of atomic orbitals.[25]

Compounds

A model of planar chemical molecule with a blue center atom (Xe) symmetrically bonded to four peripheral atoms (fluorine).
Structure of XeF4, one of the first noble gas compounds to be discovered

The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed (although there is some theoretical evidence for a few helium compounds), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity.[26] The reactivity follows the order Ne < He < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn.

In 1933, Linus Pauling predicted that the heavier noble gases could form compounds with fluorine and oxygen. He predicted the existence of krypton hexafluoride (KrF6) and xenon hexafluoride (XeF6), speculated XeF8 might exist as an unstable compound, and suggested xenic acid could form perxenate salts.[27][28] These predictions were shown to be generally accurate, except XeF8 is now thought to be both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable.[29]

Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas compounds that have been formed.[30] Most of them have the xenon atom in the oxidation state of +2, +4, +6, or +8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine or oxygen, as in xenon difluoride (XeF2), xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4), xenon hexafluoride (XeF6), xenon tetroxide (XeO4), and sodium perxenate (Na4XeO6). Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as oxidizing agents; XeF2, in particular, is commercially available and can be used as a fluorinating agent.[31] As of 2007, about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other elements have been identified, including organoxenon compounds (those bonded to carbon), and xenon bonded to nitrogen, chlorine, gold, mercury, and xenon itself.[26][32] Compounds of xenon bound to boron, hydrogen, bromine, iodine, beryllium, sulphur, titanium, copper, and silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets.[26]

In theory, radon is more reactive than xenon, and therefore should form chemical bonds more easily than xenon does. However, due to the high radioactivity and short half-life of radon isotopes, only a few fluorides and oxides of radon have been formed in practice.[33]

Krypton is less reactive than xenon, but several compounds have been reported with krypton in the oxidation state of +2.[26] Krypton difluoride is the most notable and easily characterized. Compounds in which krypton forms a single bond to nitrogen and oxygen have also been characterized,[34] but are only stable below −60 °C (−76 °F) and −90 °C (−130 °F) respectively).[26]

Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals (hydrogen, chlorine, carbon) as well as some late transition metals (copper, silver, gold) have also been observed, but only either at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets.[26] Similar conditions were used to obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000, such as argon fluorohydride (HArF), and some bound to the late transition metals copper, silver, and gold.[26] As of 2007, no stable neutral molecules involving covalently bound helium or neon are known.[26]

The noble gases—including helium—can form stable molecular ions in the gas phase. The simplest is the helium hydride molecular ion, HeH+, discovered in 1925.[35] Because it is composed of the two most abundant elements in the universe, hydrogen and helium, it is believed to occur naturally in the interstellar medium, although it has not been detected yet.[36] In addition to these ions, there are many known neutral excimers of the noble gases. These are compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when in an excited electronic state; some of them find application in excimer lasers.

In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949,[37] consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained.[38] Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice.[39]

A skeletal structure of buckminsterfullerene with an extra atom in its center.
An endohedral fullerene compound containing a noble gas atom

Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was discovered that when C60, a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes such as He@C60 can be formed (the @ notation indicates He is contained inside C60 but not covalently bound to it).[40] As of 2008, endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon have been obtained.[41] These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom.[42]

Schematic illustration of bonding and antibonding orbitals (see text)
Bonding in XeF2 according to the 3-center-4-electron bond model

Noble gas compounds such as xenon difluoride (XeF2) are considered to be hypervalent because they violate the octet rule. Bonding in such compounds can be explained using a 3-center-4-electron bond model.[43][44] This model, first proposed in 1951, considers bonding of three collinear atoms. For example, bonding in XeF2 is described by a set of three molecular orbitals (MOs) derived from p-orbitals on each atom. Bonding results from the combination of a filled p-orbital from Xe with one half-filled p-orbital from each F atom, resulting in a filled bonding orbital, a filled non-bonding orbital, and an empty antibonding orbital. The highest occupied molecular orbital is localized on the two terminal atoms. This represents a localization of charge which is facilitated by the high electronegativity of fluorine.[45]

The chemistry of heavier noble gases, krypton and xenon, are well established. The chemistry of the lighter ones, argon and helium, is still at an early stage, while a neon compound is still yet to be identified.

Occurrence and production

The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most common element in the universe after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis.[46][47] Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example, helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no primordial helium in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's gravitational field.[48] Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth's crust, and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits.[48] The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as a result of the beta decay of potassium-40, also found in the Earth's crust, to form argon-40, which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System. This process is the base for the potassium-argon dating method.[49] Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's crust.[50] Radon is formed in the lithosphere as from the alpha decay of radium. It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States alone.[51]

Abundance Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon
Solar System (for each atom of silicon)[52] 2343 2.148 0.1025 5.515 × 10−5 5.391 × 10−6
Earth's atmosphere (volume fraction in ppm)[53] 5.20 18.20 9340.00 1.10 0.09 (0.06–18) × 10−19[54]
Igneous rock (mass fraction in ppm)[55] 3 × 10−3 7 × 10−5 4 × 10−2 1.7 × 10−10
Gas 2004 price (USD/m3)[56]
Helium (industrial grade) 4.20–4.90
Helium (laboratory grade) 22.30–44.90
Argon 2.70–8.50
Neon 60–120
Krypton 400–500
Xenon 4000–5000

Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases, to convert elements to a liquid state, and fractional distillation, to separate mixtures into component parts. Helium is typically produced by separating it from natural gas, and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium compounds.[11] The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance, with argon being the cheapest and xenon the most expensive. As an example, the table to the right lists the 2004 prices in the United States for laboratory quantities of each gas.

Applications

A large solid cylinder with a hole in its center and a rail attached to its side.
Liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners.

Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes them useful as cryogenic refrigerants.[57] In particular, liquid helium, which boils at 4.2 K (−268.95 °C; −452.11 °F), is used for superconducting magnets, such as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance.[58] Liquid neon, although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium, also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid hydrogen.[54]

Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen, due its low solubility in fluids, especially in lipids. Gases are absorbed by the blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving, which causes an anesthetic effect known as nitrogen narcosis.[59] Due to its reduced solubility, little helium is taken into cell membranes, and when helium is used to replace part of the breathing mixtures, such as in trimix or heliox, a decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas at depth is obtained.[60] Helium's reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition known as decompression sickness, or the bends.[11][61] The reduced amount of dissolved gas in the body means that fewer gas bubbles form during the decrease in pressure of the ascent. Another noble gas, argon, is considered the best option for use as a drysuit inflation gas for scuba diving.[62] Helium is also used as filling gas in nuclear fuel rods for nuclear reactors.[63]

Cigar-shaped blimp with "Good Year" written on its side.
Goodyear Blimp

Since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937,[64] helium has replaced hydrogen as a lifting gas in blimps and balloons due to its lightness and incombustibility, despite an 8.6%[65] decrease in buoyancy.[11]

In many applications, the noble gases are used to provide an inert atmosphere. Argon is used in the synthesis of air-sensitive compounds that are sensitive to nitrogen. Solid argon is also used for the study of very unstable compounds, such as reactive intermediates, by trapping them in an inert matrix at very low temperatures.[66] Helium is used as the carrier medium in gas chromatography, as a filler gas for thermometers, and in devices for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber.[56] Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding arcs and the surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting, as well as in other metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for the semiconductor industry.[54]

Elongated glass sphere with two metal rod electrodes inside, facing each other. One electrode is blunt and another is sharpened.
15,000-watt xenon short-arc lamp used in IMAX projectors

Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs.[54] Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine.[54] The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such as "neon lights". These lights are called after neon but often contain other gases and phosphors, which add various hues to the orange-red color of neon. Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps which, due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps.[54]

The noble gases are used in excimer lasers, which are based on short-lived electronically excited molecules known as excimers. The excimers used for lasers may be noble gas dimers such as Ar2, Kr2 or Xe2, or more commonly, the noble gas is combined with a halogen in excimers such as ArF, KrF, XeF, or XeCl. These lasers produce ultraviolet light which, due to its short wavelength (193 nm for ArF and 248 nm for KrF), allows for high-precision imaging. Excimer lasers have many industrial, medical, and scientific applications. They are used for microlithography and microfabrication, which are essential for integrated circuit manufacture, and for laser surgery, including laser angioplasty and eye surgery.[67]

Some noble gases have direct application in medicine. Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of asthma sufferers.[54] Xenon is used as an anesthetic because of its high solubility in lipids, which makes it more potent than the usual nitrous oxide, and because it is readily eliminated from the body, resulting in faster recovery.[68] Xenon finds application in medical imaging of the lungs through hyperpolarized MRI.[69] Radon, which is highly radioactive and is only available in minute amounts, is used in radiotherapy.[11]

Discharge color

Colors and spectra (bottom row) of electric discharge in pure noble gases
Glass tube shining violet light with a wire wound over it Glass tube shining orange light with a wire wound over it Glass tube shining violet-blue light with a wire wound over it Glass tube shining white light with a wire wound over it Glass tube shining blue light with a wire wound over it
Glass tube shining red Glass tube shining red Glass tube shining red Glass tube shining red Glass tube shining red
Illuminated light red gas discharge tubes shaped as letters H and e Illuminated orange gas discharge tubes shaped as letters N and e Illuminated blue gas discharge tubes shaped as letters A and r Illuminated white gas discharge tubes shaped as letters K and r Illuminated violet gas discharge tubes shaped as letters X and e
Helium line spectrum Neon line spectrum Argon line spectrum Krypton line spectrum Xenon line spectrum
Helium Neon Argon
(with some Hg in the "Ar" image)
Krypton Xenon

The color of gas discharge emission depends on several factors, including the following:[70]

  • discharge parameters (local value of current density and electric field, temperature, etc. – note the color variation along the discharge in the top row);
  • gas purity (even small fraction of certain gases can affect color);
  • material of the discharge tube envelope – note suppression of the UV and blue components in the bottom-row tubes made of thick household glass.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Nash, Clinton S. (2005). "Atomic and Molecular Properties of Elements 112, 114, and 118". J. Phys. Chem. A 109 (15): 3493–3500. doi:10.1021/jp050736o. PMID 16833687. 
  2. ^ "Flerov laboratory of nuclear reactions". JINR. http://www1.jinr.ru/Reports/2008/english/06_flnr_e.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-08. 
  3. ^ Renouf, Edward (1901). "Noble gases". Science 13 (320): 268–270. Bibcode 1901Sci....13..268R. doi:10.1126/science.13.320.268. 
  4. ^ Ojima 2002, p. 30
  5. ^ Ojima 2002, p. 4
  6. ^ "argon". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009382/argon. 
  7. ^ Oxford English Dictionary (1989), s.v. "helium". Retrieved December 16, 2006, from Oxford English Dictionary Online. Also, from quotation there: Thomson, W. (1872). Rep. Brit. Assoc. xcix: "Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium."
  8. ^ a b Ojima 2002, p. 1
  9. ^ Mendeleev 1903, p. 497
  10. ^ Partington, J. R. (1957). "Discovery of Radon". Nature 179 (4566): 912. Bibcode 1957Natur.179..912P. doi:10.1038/179912a0. 
  11. ^ a b c d e f g "Noble Gas". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110613/noble-gas. 
  12. ^ Cederblom, J. E. (1904). "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1904 Presentation Speech". http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1904/press.html. 
  13. ^ a b Cederblom, J. E. (1904). "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1904 Presentation Speech". http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1904/press.html. 
  14. ^ Gillespie, R. J.; Robinson, E. A. (2007). "Gilbert N. Lewis and the chemical bond: the electron pair and the octet rule from 1916 to the present day". J Comput Chem 28 (1): 87–97. doi:10.1002/jcc.20545. PMID 17109437. 
  15. ^ Bartlett, N. (1962). "Xenon hexafluoroplatinate Xe+[PtF6]". Proceedings of the Chemical Society (6): 218. doi:10.1039/PS9620000197. 
  16. ^ Fields, Paul R.; Stein, Lawrence; Zirin, Moshe H. (1962). "Radon Fluoride". Journal of the American Chemical Society 84 (21): 4164–4165. doi:10.1021/ja00880a048. 
  17. ^ Grosse, A. V.; Kirschenbaum, A. D.; Streng, A. G.; Streng, L. V. (1963). "Krypton Tetrafluoride: Preparation and Some Properties". Science 139 (3559): 1047–1048. Bibcode 1963Sci...139.1047G. doi:10.1126/science.139.3559.1047. PMID 17812982. 
  18. ^ Khriachtchev, Leonid; Pettersson, Mika; Runeberg, Nino; Lundell, Jan; Räsänen, Markku (2000). "A stable argon compound". Nature 406 (6798): 874–876. doi:10.1038/35022551. PMID 10972285. 
  19. ^ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G. et al. (1999). "Synthesis of Superheavy Nuclei in the 48Ca + 244Pu Reaction". Physical Review Letters (American Physical Society) 83 (16): 3154. Bibcode 1999PhRvL..83.3154O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.3154. 
  20. ^ Woods, Michael (2003-05-06). "Chemical element No. 110 finally gets a name—darmstadtium". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/healthscience/20030506element0506p4.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-26. 
  21. ^ "Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements" (PDF). Texas A&M University. http://lch.web.psi.ch/files/lectures/TexasA&M/TexasA&M.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-31. 
  22. ^ Wilson, Elaine (2005). "Making Meaning in Chemistry Lessons". Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science 4 (2). http://ejlts.ucdavis.edu/sites/ejlts.ucdavis.edu/files/articles/Wilson.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-01. 
  23. ^ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Sagaidak, R.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu. et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249
    Cf
    and 245
    Cm
    + 48
    Ca
    fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4): 44602. Bibcode 2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602.
     
  24. ^ Ojima 2002, p. 35
  25. ^ CliffsNotes 2007, p. 15
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h Grochala, Wojciech (2007). "Atypical compounds of gases, which have been called noble". Chemical Society Reviews 36 (10): 1632–1655. doi:10.1039/b702109g. PMID 17721587. 
  27. ^ Pauling, Linus (1933). "The Formulas of Antimonic Acid and the Antimonates". Journal of the American Chemical Society 55 (5): 1895–1900. doi:10.1021/ja01332a016. 
  28. ^ Holloway 1968
  29. ^ Seppelt, Konrad (1979). "Recent developments in the Chemistry of Some Electronegative Elements". Accounts of Chemical Research 12 (6): 211–216. doi:10.1021/ar50138a004. 
  30. ^ Moody, G. J. (1974). "A Decade of Xenon Chemistry". Journal of Chemical Education 51 (10): 628–630. Bibcode 1974JChEd..51..628M. doi:10.1021/ed051p628. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ111480&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ111480. Retrieved 2007-10-16. 
  31. ^ Zupan, Marko; Iskra, Jernej; Stavber, Stojan (1998). "Fluorination with XeF2. 44. Effect of Geometry and Heteroatom on the Regioselectivity of Fluorine Introduction into an Aromatic Ring". J. Org. Chem 63 (3): 878–880. doi:10.1021/jo971496e. PMID 11672087. 
  32. ^ Harding 2002, pp. 90–99
  33. ^ .Avrorin, V. V.; Krasikova, R. N.; Nefedov, V. D.; Toropova, M. A. (1982). "The Chemistry of Radon". Russian Chemical Review 51 (1): 12–20. Bibcode 1982RuCRv..51...12A. doi:10.1070/RC1982v051n01ABEH002787. 
  34. ^ Lehmann, J (2002). "The chemistry of krypton". Coordination Chemistry Reviews 233–234: 1–39. doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00202-3. 
  35. ^ Hogness, T. R.; Lunn, E. G. (1925). "The Ionization of Hydrogen by Electron Impact as Interpreted by Positive Ray Analysis". Physical Review 26: 44–55. Bibcode 1925PhRv...26...44H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.26.44. 
  36. ^ Fernandez, J.; Martin, F. (2007). "Photoionization of the HeH2+ molecular ion". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys 40 (12): 2471–2480. Bibcode 2007JPhB...40.2471F. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/40/12/020. 
  37. ^ H. M. Powell and M. Guter (1949). "An Inert Gas Compound". Nature 164 (4162): 240–241. Bibcode 1949Natur.164..240P. doi:10.1038/164240b0. 
  38. ^ Greenwood 1997, p. 893
  39. ^ Dyadin, Yuri A. et al. (1999). "Clathrate hydrates of hydrogen and neon". Mendeleev Communications 9 (5): 209–210. doi:10.1070/MC1999v009n05ABEH001104. 
  40. ^ Saunders, M.; Jiménez-Vázquez, H. A.; Cross, R. J.; Poreda, R. J. (1993). "Stable compounds of helium and neon. He@C60 and Ne@C60". Science 259 (5100): 1428–1430. Bibcode 1993Sci...259.1428S. doi:10.1126/science.259.5100.1428. PMID 17801275. 
  41. ^ Saunders, Martin; Jimenez-Vazquez, Hugo A.; Cross, R. James; Mroczkowski, Stanley; Gross, Michael L.; Giblin, Daryl E.; Poreda, Robert J. (1994). "Incorporation of helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon into fullerenes using high pressure". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116 (5): 2193–2194. doi:10.1021/ja00084a089. 
  42. ^ Frunzi, Michael; Cross, R. James; Saunders, Martin (2007). "Effect of Xenon on Fullerene Reactions". Journal of the American Chemical Society 129 (43): 13343–6. doi:10.1021/ja075568n. PMID 17924634. 
  43. ^ Greenwood 1997, p. 897
  44. ^ Weinhold 2005, pp. 275–306
  45. ^ Pimentel, G. C. (1951). "The Bonding of Trihalide and Bifluoride Ions by the Molecular Orbital Method". The Journal of Chemical Physics 19 (4): 446–448. Bibcode 1951JChPh..19..446P. doi:10.1063/1.1748245. 
  46. ^ Weiss, Achim. "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation". Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics. http://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlights/BBN_obs/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-23. 
  47. ^ Coc, A.; et al. (2004). "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements". Astrophysical Journal 600 (2): 544. arXiv:astro-ph/0309480. Bibcode 2004ApJ...600..544C. doi:10.1086/380121. 
  48. ^ a b Morrison, P.; Pine, J. (1955). "Radiogenic Origin of the Helium Isotopes in Rock". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 62 (3): 71–92. Bibcode 1955NYASA..62...71M. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1955.tb35366.x. 
  49. ^ Scherer, Alexandra (2007-01-16). "40Ar/39Ar dating and errors". Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071014042248/http://geoberg.de/text/geology/07011601.php. Retrieved 2008-06-26. 
  50. ^ Sanloup, Chrystèle; et al. (2005). "Retention of Xenon in Quartz and Earth's Missing Xenon". Science 310 (5751): 1174–1177. Bibcode 2005Sci...310.1174S. doi:10.1126/science.1119070. PMID 16293758. 
  51. ^ "A Citizen's Guide to Radon". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2007-11-26. http://www.epa.gov/radon/pubs/citguide.html. Retrieved 2008-06-26. 
  52. ^ Lodders, Katharina (2003). "Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements". The Astrophysical Journal 591 (2): 1220–1247. Bibcode 2003ApJ...591.1220L. doi:10.1086/375492. 
  53. ^ "The Atmosphere". National Weather Service. http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream//atmos/atmos_intro.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-01. 
  54. ^ a b c d e f g Häussinger, Peter; Glatthaar, Reinhard; Rhode, Wilhelm; Kick, Helmut; Benkmann, Christian; Weber, Josef; Wunschel, Hans-Jörg; Stenke, Viktor; Leicht, Edith; Stenger, Hermann (2002). "Noble gases". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley. doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_485. 
  55. ^ Greenwood 1997, p. 891
  56. ^ a b Hwang, Shuen-Chen; Lein, Robert D.; Morgan, Daniel A. (2005). "Noble Gases". Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley. pp. 343–383. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01. 
  57. ^ "Neon". Encarta. 2008. 
  58. ^ Zhang, C. J.; Zhou, X. T.; Yang, L. (1992). "Demountable coaxial gas-cooled current leads for MRI superconducting magnets". Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on (IEEE) 28 (1): 957–959. Bibcode 1992ITM....28..957Z. doi:10.1109/20.120038. 
  59. ^ Fowler, B; Ackles, K. N.; Porlier, G. (1985). "Effects of inert gas narcosis on behavior—a critical review". Undersea Biomed. Res. 12 (4): 369–402. ISSN 0093-5387. OCLC 2068005. PMID 4082343. http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/3019. Retrieved 2008-04-08. 
  60. ^ Bennett 1998, p. 176
  61. ^ Vann, R. D. (ed) (1989). "The Physiological Basis of Decompression". 38th Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Workshop 75(Phys)6-1-89: 437. http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6853. Retrieved 2008-05-31. 
  62. ^ Maiken, Eric (2004-08-01). "Why Argon?". Decompression. http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Why_Argon.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-26. 
  63. ^ Horhoianu, G (1999). "Thermal behaviour of CANDU type fuel rods during steady state and transient operating conditions". Annals of Nuclear Energy 26 (16): 1437. doi:10.1016/S0306-4549(99)00022-5. 
  64. ^ "Disaster Ascribed to Gas by Experts". The New York Times: p. 1. 1937-05-07. 
  65. ^ Freudenrich, Craig (2008). "How Blimps Work". HowStuffWorks. http://science.howstuffworks.com/blimp2.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-03. 
  66. ^ Dunkin, I. R. (1980). "The matrix isolation technique and its application to organic chemistry". Chem. Soc. Rev. 9: 1–23. doi:10.1039/CS9800900001. 
  67. ^ Basting, Dirk; Marowsky, Gerd (2005). Excimer Laser Technology. Springer. ISBN 3-540-20056-8. 
  68. ^ Sanders, Robert D.; Ma, Daqing; Maze, Mervyn (2005). "Xenon: elemental anaesthesia in clinical practice". British Medical Bulletin 71 (1): 115–135. doi:10.1093/bmb/ldh034. PMID 15728132. 
  69. ^ Albert, M. S.; Balamore, D. (1998). "Development of hyperpolarized noble gas MRI". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 402 (2–3): 441–453. Bibcode 1998NIMPA.402..441A. doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(97)00888-7. PMID 11543065. 
  70. ^ Ray, Sidney F. (1999). Scientific photography and applied imaging. Focal Press. pp. 383–384. ISBN 0-240-51323-1. http://books.google.com/?id=AEFPNfghI3QC&pg=PA383. 

References


Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Поможем решить контрольную работу

Look at other dictionaries:

  • Noble gas — Noble No ble, a. [Compar. {Nobler}; superl. {Noblest}.] [F. noble, fr. L. nobilis that can be or is known, well known, famous, highborn, noble, fr. noscere to know. See {know}.] 1. Possessing eminence, elevation, dignity, etc.; above whatever is… …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • noble gas — ► NOUN Chemistry ▪ any of the gaseous elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon, which form compounds with difficulty or not at all …   English terms dictionary

  • noble gas — Chem. any of the chemically inert gaseous elements of group 8A or 0 of the periodic table: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. Also called inert gas. [1900 05] * * * or inert gas Any of the six chemical elements that make up the… …   Universalium

  • noble gas — noun any of the chemically inert gaseous elements of the helium group in the periodic table • Syn: ↑inert gas, ↑argonon • Hypernyms: ↑chemical element, ↑element, ↑gas • Hyponyms: ↑ …   Useful english dictionary

  • noble gas — UK / US noun [countable] Word forms noble gas : singular noble gas plural noble gases chemistry a gas that does not react with other substances, from the group of gases that includes helium and neon …   English dictionary

  • noble gas — inertinės dujos statusas T sritis Standartizacija ir metrologija apibrėžtis Dujinės būsenos inertiniai elementai He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. atitikmenys: angl. inactive gas; inert gas; noble gas; rare gas vok. Edelgas, n; inertes Gas, n; Inertgas, n… …   Penkiakalbis aiškinamasis metrologijos terminų žodynas

  • noble gas — inertinės dujos statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: angl. inert gas; noble gas; rare gas vok. Edelgas, n; inertes Gas, n; Inertgas, n rus. благородный газ, m; инертный газ, m pranc. gaz inerte, m; gaz noble, m; gaz rare, m …   Fizikos terminų žodynas

  • noble gas — inertinės dujos statusas T sritis chemija apibrėžtis He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. atitikmenys: angl. inert elements; inert gas; noble gas; rare gas rus. благородный газ; инертные элементы; инертный газ ryšiai: sinonimas – inertiniai elementai …   Chemijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas

  • Noble gas (disambiguation) — Noble gas may refer to: Noble gas, a member of the Group 18 series of chemical elements Noble gas compounds, chemical compounds incorporating a Group 18 element Noble Gas (band), an electronic musical group The Noble Gasses (band), an… …   Wikipedia

  • Noble gas compound — Contents 1 History and background 2 Pre 1962 compounds 2.1 Clathrates …   Wikipedia

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”