- Case-based reasoning
Case-based reasoning (CBR), broadly construed, is the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems. An auto
mechanic who fixes anengine by recalling another car that exhibited similar symptoms is using case-based reasoning. Alawyer who advocates a particular outcome in a trial based onlegal precedent s or a judge who createscase law is using case-based reasoning. So, too, anengineer copying working elements of nature (practicingbiomimicry ), is treating nature as a database of solutions to problems. Case-based reasoning is a prominent kind ofanalogy making.It has been argued that case-based reasoning is not only a powerful method for
computer reasoning , but also a pervasive behavior in everyday humanproblem solving . Or, more radically, that all reasoning is based on past cases experienced or accepted by the being actively exercising choice –prototype theory – most deeply explored in humancognitive science .Process
Case-based reasoning has been formalized for purposes of
computer reasoning as a four-step processAgnar Aamodt and Enric Plaza, "Case-Based Reasoning: Foundational Issues, Methodological Variations, and System Approaches," "Artificial Intelligence Communications" 7 (1994): 1, 39-52.] :# Retrieve: Given a target problem, retrieve cases from memory that are relevant to solving it. A case consists of a problem, its solution, and, typically, annotations about how the solution was derived. For example, suppose Fred wants to prepare blueberry
pancakes . Being a novice cook, the most relevant experience he can recall is one in which he successfully made plain pancakes. The procedure he followed for making the plain pancakes, together with justifications for decisions made along the way, constitutes Fred's retrieved case.
# Reuse: Map the solution from the previous case to the target problem. This may involve adapting the solution as needed to fit the new situation. In the pancake example, Fred must adapt his retrieved solution to include the addition of blueberries.
# Revise: Having mapped the previous solution to the target situation, test the new solution in the real world (or a simulation) and, if necessary, revise. Suppose Fred adapted his pancake solution by adding blueberries to the batter. After mixing, he discovers that the batter has turned blue – an undesired effect. This suggests the following revision: delay the addition of blueberries until after the batter has been ladled into the pan.
# Retain: After the solution has been successfully adapted to the target problem, store the resulting experience as a new case in memory. Fred, accordingly, records his newfound procedure for making blueberry pancakes, thereby enriching his set of stored experiences, and better preparing him for future pancake-making demands.Comparison to other methods
At first glance, CBR may seem similar to the rule-induction
algorithm sRule-induction algorithms are procedures for learning rules for a given concept by generalizing from examples of that concept. For example, a rule-induction algorithm might learn rules for forming the plural of English nouns from examples such as "dog/dogs", "fly/flies", and "ray/rays".] ofmachine learning . Like arule-induction algorithm , CBR starts with a set of cases or training examples; it forms generalizations of these examples, albeit implicit ones, by identifying commonalities between a retrieved case and the target problem.If for instance a procedure for plain pancakes is mapped to blueberry pancakes, a decision is made to use the same basic batter and frying method, thus implicitly generalizing the set of situations under which the batter and frying method can be used. The key difference, however, between the implicit generalization in CBR and the generalization in rule induction lies in when the generalization is made. A rule-induction algorithm draws its generalizations from a set of training examples before the target problem is even known; that is, it performs eager generalization.
For instance, if a rule-induction algorithm were given recipes for plain pancakes, Dutch apple pancakes, and banana pancakes as its training examples, it would have to derive, at training time, a set of general rules for making all types of pancakes. It would not be until testing time that it would be given, say, the task of cooking blueberry pancakes. The difficulty for the rule-induction algorithm is in anticipating the different directions in which it should attempt to generalize its training examples. This is in contrast to CBR, which delays (implicit) generalization of its cases until testing time – a strategy of lazy generalization. In the pancake example, CBR has already been given the target problem of cooking blueberry pancakes; thus it can generalize its cases exactly as needed to cover this situation. CBR therefore tends to be a good approach for rich, complex domains in which there are myriad ways to generalize a case.
Criticism
Critics of CBR argue that it is an approach that accepts
anecdotal evidence as its main operating principle. Without statistically relevant data for backing and implicit generalization, there is no guarantee that the generalization is correct. However, all inductive reasoning where data is too scarce for statistical relevance is inherently based onanecdotal evidence .History
CBR traces its roots to the work of
Roger Schank and his students atYale University in the early 1980s. Schank's model of dynamic memoryRoger Schank, Dynamic Memory: "A Theory of Learning in Computers and People" (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).] was the basis for the earliest CBR systems: Janet Kolodner's CYRUSJanet Kolodner, "Reconstructive Memory: A Computer Model," "Cognitive Science" 7 (1983): 4.] and Michael Lebowitz's IPPMichael Lebowitz, "Memory-Based Parsing," "Artificial Intelligence" 21 (1983), 363-404.] .Other schools of CBR and closely allied fields emerged in the 1980s, investigating such topics as CBR in legal reasoning, memory-based reasoning (a way of reasoning from examples on massively parallel machines), and combinations of CBR with other reasoning methods. In the 1990s, interest in CBR grew in the international community, as evidenced by the establishment of an International Conference on Case-Based Reasoning in 1995, as well as European, German, British, Italian, and other CBR workshops.
CBR technology has produced a number of successful deployed systems, the earliest being Lockheed's CLAVIERBill Mark, "Case-Based Reasoning for Autoclave Management," "Proceedings of the Case-Based Reasoning Workshop" (1989).] , a system for laying out composite parts to be baked in an industrial convection oven. CBR has been used extensively in
help desk applications such as the Compaq SMART systemTrung Nguyen, Mary Czerwinski, and Dan Lee, "COMPAQ QuickSource: Providing the Consumer with the Power of Artificial Intelligence," in "Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Conference on Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence" (Washington, DC: AAAI Press, 1993), 142-151.] .Prominent CBR systems
* SMART: Support management automated reasoning technology for Compaq customer serviceAcorn, T., and Walden, S., SMART: Support management automated reasoning technology for Compaq customer service. In Proceedings of the Tenth National Conference Conference on Artificial Intelligence. MIT Press. (1992).]
* Appliance Call Center automation at General ElectricCheetham, W., Goebel, K., Appliance Call Center: A Successful Mixed-Initiative Case Study, Artificial Intelligence Magazine, Volume 28, No. 2, (2007). pp 89 – 100.]
* CLAVIER: Applying case-based reasoning on to composite part fabrication Hinkle, D., and Toomey, C. N., CLAVIER: Applying case-based reasoning on to composite part fabrication. Proceeding of the Sixth Innovative Application of AI Conference, Seattle, WA, AAAI Press, (1994). pp. 55-62.]
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