History of the Kurdistan Workers Party

The history of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) began in 1974 as a Marxist-Leninist organization under the leadership of Abdullah Öcalan."Kurdistan Workers' Party". F.A.S. 2004.] In 1978 the organization adapted the name "Kurdistan Workers Party" and waged Urban War between 1978-1980. The organization restructured itself and moved the organization structure to Syria between 1980-1984 just after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. The campaign of armed violence began in 1984. The rural-based insurgency lasted between 1984-1992. The PKK shifted it's activities to include urban terrorism between 1993-1995 and later 1996–1999. The leader of the party captured in Kenya in the early 1999. After a "self declared peace initiative of 1999," returned to active stage in February 2004. Since 1974, it had been able to evolve, adapt, gone through a metamorphosis Joost Jongerden, PKK, CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 3, No. 1 page 127-132] , which became the main factor in its survival. It had gradually grown from a handful of political students to a radical organization became part of targets of War on Terrorism.

Origin

The PKK's origins is traced back to 1974 when Öcalan and a small group of radicals out of Revolutionary Youth "Dev-Genç" decided to develop Kurdish based left wing organization. Dev-Genç was originated in the 1970s from the radical left in Turkey and drew its leaders, members and militants from the disenfranchised. Following Turkey's rapid industrial development during the 1950s and 60s, there were numerous official and spontaneous strikes and factory occupations between 1968 and 1971. Violent confrontations with the police were common. Numerous groups and organizations arose which in one way or another regarded themselves as socialist. "Dev-Genç" was also arisen through a rebellion against the leadership of the newly founded social democratic TIP (Workers Party) in the mid 1960s. Most of these organization were crushed by the security establishment. The members of this new small organization was actively participated different branches of Dev-Genç. In 1971 Abdullah Öcalan joined the underground movements trying to overthrow Turkey's parliamentary system while he was student at the Ankara University Political Sciences Faculty. Öcalan was also sympathetic with the People’s Liberation Party of Turkey THKO. Öcalan to be the leader later used the skills and the social network that he developed during this period. Like "Dev-Genç" Apacus was a splinter organization.

What made Apacus, later PKK, different was that it decided to move it's activities from Ankara, capital city, to southern boarder towns of Turkey. Unlike most Kurdish political parties, which adopted a rather conservative outlook and were organized around tribal leaders and structures, they had fierce stance, strong convictions, and disciplined but decentralized organization which contributed to a steady rise and growing effectiveness Transferring to southern boarder towns with a radical left rhetoric gave this group initial resources during a time which Turkey was a pawn in the Proxy wars of the Cold War and had problems with the Syria.

Apocular (1974-1978)

The core of the organization established with 16 members, led by political science student Öcalan, later to be his wife Kesire Yildirim, Cemil Bayik, Baki Karer, Kemal Pir, Mehmet Sevgat, and ten other members with the name "Ankara Democratic Association of Higher Education (ADYÖD)." The organization was located in Ankara. During this period, Öcalan and his supporters were generally known as APOCUS, in Turkish "Apocular". Today, there are only a few still living or following the cause, a result of a combination of factors, including disputes internal to the PKK.

Although originally based in Ankara, Öcalan decided that there was a better base in south-east Turkey. Öcalan recognized that he can organize and build a secure base to perform activities by using the tribal system in the region. He focused on tribes that are not historically coexisting peacefully with the government. Thus, Öcalan focused much of his attention from 1976-78 to building a PKK structure in that region. It was a secret organization, but deciphered by Turkish Intelligence in 1977.

On May 18, 1977, Hakî Karer, who belonged to small group of confidants, a housemate of Öcalan, not a Kurd but a Turk from Ordu, was dispatched to Gaziantep to recruit new members. He was involved in a political discussion with another left Kurdish faction called “Sterka Sor” (Red Star) in a coffee shop. He was killed in Gaziantep, allegedly by members of a rival Kurdish group. This was the first resistance against APOcular by a rival Kurdish group. From that moment APOcular become more careful, strict and violent. In the party’s historiography, the death of Haki Karer is related to the decision to deepen and strengthen the struggle. Haki Karer's brother Baki Karer (co-founder) later claimed his brother had been killed after a disagreement with Öcalan.

On October 27, 1978, in a village called Fis, in the district of Lice, north of Diyarbakir; APOCUS became Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). The ideological footprints during this period was detailed in the proclamation. The official release of the "Proclamation of Independence of PKK", a document, stated that primary objective was to foster a communist revolution in Turkey. The group did not claimed to be secessionist in this document. They wanted a proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism.

Urban War (1978-1980)

Starting in 1978, the organization attacked groups that they perceived as "fascist." PKK focused its violence primarily against perceived state collaborators, and Kurdish tribes that had historically coexisted peacefully with the government.

In 1979 Mehmet Celal Bucak a high-ranking member of the conservative Justice Party was condemned for "exploiting the peasants," and "collaborating with government". PKK decided to use fighting against the landlords in Hilvan and Siverek to make a name. PKK failed in it's attempted to assassinate Mehmet Celal Bucak. This was the first known activity by the PKK. The planned assassination was an example of propaganda-of-the-deed.

On 28 November 1979 the first response of the government was performed . Turkey did not know the name PKK but listed the organization with its old name Apocular. 242 members of this organization were captured at Hilvan and Siverek residences. Bucak tribe became an enemy to PKK and from 1979 to 1991, 140 deaths the Bucak tribe. Besides the Bucak tribe, PKK fought against the Revolutionary Unity of the People, the Liberation of the People, the Revolutionary Democratic Cultural Association, and National Liberation of Kurdistan.

In two years, the country turned into a battleground. From 1978 to 1982, the Turkish National Security Council recorded approximately 43,000 incidents it described as terrorism. The overall death-toll of the terror of the 1970s is estimated at 5,000, with nearly ten assassinations per day.Gil, Ata. "La Turquie à marche forcée," "Le Monde diplomatique", February 1981.]

All through this time, Öcalan eluded capture and remained in control. He fled the country in 1979. Even before the coup, Öcalan knew that he had to restructure PKK to continue its activities. In 1979, Öcalan moved to Bekaa valley, he had chance to develop his connection from where dev-genç left. His initial accommodations were covered through already established ASALA structure and Fatah camps, in part of ex-Syrian-controlled Lebanon. Until 1999 Syria had provided valuable safe havens to the organization in the region of Beqaa Valley.

yria (1980-1984)

With the 1980 assassination of an ex-prime minister, the discovery of gun depots, cities that gained freedom from opposing groups (a sign of government loss of control) and having no president (head of government) as parliament was unable to gather to select one, and most importantly with the Iran–Iraq War in progress on the site there was a 1980 Turkish military coup. Coup initiated sets of trails. In the central trial against the left-wing organization Devrimci Yol (Revolutionary Path) at Ankara Military Court the defendants listed 5,388 political killings before the military coup. Among the victims were 1,296 rightwingers and 2,109 left-wingers. The others could not clearly be related. [Devrimci Yol Savunması (Defense of the Revolutionary Path). Ankara, January 1989, p. 118-119.] In this period, the number of deaths attributed to the PKK was approximately 240. The military tribunals of the 1980 coup which tried 7,000 people revealed a recorded 5,241 dead and 14,152 wounded from 1979 to 1980. The PKK made up 21% of the total 5,241 caseload.

Following imprisonment, the captured PKK members set up an elaborate resistance organization that would operate even behind bars. This organization became famous for their hunger strikes. They also smuggled in guns and communication equipment into prison. Recruitment and training became commonplace for imprisoned PKK members.

On August 20-25, 1982, PKK's second congress was held in Lebanon's Ain al-Hilweh region. Second congress established by the remaining PKK members and Turkish left-wing militants who fled before they were imprisoned by the coup. Öcalan consolidated his resources at the training camps in Bekaa valley. PKK build up a new power base. This marked the beginning of the second stage of PKK's efforts to establish control of southeastern Turkey.

At Ain al-Hilweh near to the largest Palestinian refugee camp located on the outskirts of the port of Sidon in Lebanon, the organization developed links with paramilitary groups among other ethnic groups which has harbored historic grievances against Turkey such as the ethnic Armenian ASALA.cite web
url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/23436-terror-russia
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=Roots of Islamic Terrorism: How Communists Helped Fundamentalists
work=Global Politician
date=2007-09-11
first=Antero
last=Leitzinger] The links extended to groups which shared its left-wing nationalist ideology such as the Palestine Liberation Organisation, ETA, and, to a lesser degree, the Provisional Irish Republican Army. During this period, through the large Kurdish immigration in Germany, it has also formed close contacts with violent left-wing political groups in that country. The link with German violent left-wing political groups extended to supply of militants, such as Eva Juhnke.

On April 8, 1980 at Sidon PKK and ASALA held a press conference declaring that they have common grounds to work. On 9 November, 1980, ASALA and PKK developed the Strasbourg incident. On 19 November, 1980, ASALA and PKK developed Rome incident. July 1983, ASALA disappeared in the Lebanese valley where PKK was established. It was alleged that Soviet Armenian KGB officer Karen Brutents was behind the militant structure that was adapted by PKK and methods used by ASALA. Since pro-Soviet Armenians had participated in the founding of an anti-Turkish Kurdish party already in 1927, the theories, arguments, propaganda methods and activity structures were time tested [ Antero Leitzinger, The Roots of Islamic Terrorism: How Communists Helped Fundamentalists] According to the former KGB-FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko, who was assassinated in 2006, PKK's Ocalan trained by KGB-FSB. [cite news
url=http://www.chechenpress.co.uk/english/news/2005/07/11/01.shtml
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=The originator of the acts of terrorism in London was standing near Tony Blair
date=2007-05-11
work=Chechen Press
archiveurl=http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/regions/london/2005/07/318875.html
archivedate=2007-05-19]

On the December 15, 1984 the organization and other left-oriented groups including Workers Party of Turkey, Communist Labour Party of Turkey, Communist Party of Turkey, Socialist Party of Turkish Kurdistan and Socialist Workers Party of Turkey signed a protocol to work together.

Paramilitary I (1984-1992)

1984 marked the beginning of sustained paramilitary action by the PKK, attacking government mainly personnel and infrastructure associated with Southeastern Anatolia Project, as well as civilian targets. As a means to this end, the Kurdish National Liberation Front (ERNK) was formed in 1985. Eventually, military operations were handed over from the ERNK to the Kurdistan Popular Liberation Army (ARGK). The ERNK remained, but largely as a front for the ARGK.

In 1988, Tehran gave permission to open PKK camps close to Iran's border.

In 1989, the organization concluded an alliance with a number of extreme left wing guerrilla groups to exchange ability and methods to strike in big cities. [ Zürcher, Turkey A Modern History, p.314]

Hot pursuit

From 1982 onwards, the Iran-Iraq war gave Kurdish organisations in Northern Iraq, a free hand, because Iraq needed and moved its troops to the front in the South. The organization used this to develop cross border attacks from Iraq. The relations between the Marxist PKK and Barzani’s conservative KDP were never cordial, but the latter nevertheless allowed organization to operate from the KDP controlled areas and in the south of the Iraqi-Turkish border. This gave the PKK two routes of penetration into Turkey, directly from Syria and over Iraq [ Zürcher, Turkey A Modern History, p.313] From 1986 -1987, Turkey engaged with Hot pursuit towards the organization members through cross border into northern Iraq. The cross border incidents were archived with the approval of the then-Iraqi government under president Saddam Hussein.

The organisation reached an all-time highest operational activity during the Gulf War (August 1990 – February 1991). Turkey opened its Iraqi border for the Iraqi refugess. This allowed Kurdish and Iraqi refugees, including PKK members, to enter Turkey. The Gulf War also extensively undermined Baghdad’s control over the Kurds in Iraq and Barzani and Talabani have controlled the area. A power vacuum was created in the north of 36th. Parallel and this enabled the PKK to establish bases and training camps in the northern Iraq. [ Zürcher, Turkey A Modern History, p.314]

In 1992, Turkey decided to change their operational functionality at the hot pursuits to take action against the organization's camps, launching major operations begining with the end of 1992.

Trans-nationalization

During this period, organization develeloped branches in nonexclusively Greece, Cyprus, Syria, Russia. It was effectively working in a wide range of countries and able to effect the local policies. The organization became a case of transnational ethnic nationalism. The hunger strikes, protest marches and terrorist bombings in Germany were cases of transnationalized movement. Germany faced with the challenge of developing policies towards their Kurdish residents as well as towards Turkey.

In 1993 the organization was banned in Germany.

Paramilitary II (1993-1995)

Turkey recognized that it is impossible to establish protection under the insurgent attacks. Turkey recognized it was impossible to eliminate the organization as a fighting force as long as it can retreat to Syria, Iraq and Iran. Organization's revenues have been estimated by various countries at between USD 200-500 million annually during the 1990s. After state support, an important source of income became drug trafficking as substantial amounts of heroin formerly transiting Iran are now re-routed through Iraq after the war in Iraq (Gulf War). Organization had been working on developing means to drug-trafficking and according to Interpol's records, 298 people connected with the organization were arrested for drug trafficking between 1984 and 1993.

With the increase of Turkey's activities to cope with PKK, 10 percent of income was spent on fighting against the PKK. One year the military spent $8,000,000,000 in operational expenses, and PKK's activity was not curbed.

Later in 1993, the PKK launched coordinated attacks involving firebombs and vandalism on Turkish diplomatic and commercial offices in six West European countries.

On March 19, 1993, PKK put an end to the long-standing PKK vendetta against the other Kurdish parties through an agreement with the Kurdistan Socialist Party. In a turning point in the organizations structure, during 1995 30% of the captured or killed PKK members were Syrian nationals of Armenian origin or other Syrians.

Gulf War changed the political stituation. Turkey had a passive support to war. The border with Iraq became the worst border. There was an authority that Turkey could communicate in Syria and Iran, but Gulf War left North Iraq with what Turkey has called a "vacuum of control". Also, Iraq assisted the organization as a retaliation for the passive support. The aid was meant to serve as a retaliation against Turkey due to its anti-Iraq policy. later Operation Provide Comfort used Incirlik air base in Turkey to create an autonomous area for Iraq Kurds.

Marking the boarder

During 1988 after the Halabja poison gas attack 36,000 Kurdish refugees were located in Diyarbakir. Iraq began to spread out its problems to Turkey. After the Gulf War of 1991, the problem was not just PKK insurgency. It was a humanitarian problem that can turn into a regional war.

The "vacuum of power in North Iraq" refers to a security concept related to creation of a "safe haven" in North Iraq. It's first use was attributed to Turgut Özal. The goal has been stated as stabilization of economical, social, and cultural the conditions of Kurds under "Unified Iraq." The "Unified Iraq" has been the dominant position for Turkish foreign policy. Turkey wanted to have positive and constructive relations to all ethnic and religious groups in Iraq. This sentiments was apparent during the "1 March" incident, in which Kurdish origin representatives prevented Turkey's participation to 2003 invasion of Iraq. Turkey with its Kurdish population is sensitive to the short term and long term problems of Iraqi Kurds.

On May 1995 Suleyman Demirel proposed moving the border from the heights to stop the insurgency:Quote|The border on those heights is wrong. Actually, that is the boundary of the oil region. Turkey begins where that boundary ends. Geologists drew that line. It is not Turkey's national border. That is a matter that has to be rectified. I said some time ago that "the area will be infiltrated when we withdraw [from northern Iraq] ." . . . The terrorists will return. We will be confronted with a similar situation in two or three months. So, let us correct the border line. Turkey cannot readjust its border with Iraq by itself. The border line on the heights has to be brought down to the lower areas. I only want to point out that the border line is wrong. Had it been in the low areas at the foot of the mountains, the [PKK] militants would not have been able to assemble in that region.|Suleyman Demirel|Middle East Quarterly, September 1995

This proposal was rejected by Iraq and consequently Iran and Arab countries. Turkey decided to mark the Iraq-Turkey border and eliminate the free movement of the organization in this region. There were ten southeastern provinces located in the mountains boarder. On the Turkish side of the border 3000 residential units which had 378,335 villagers were displaced. Thermal cameras were located on the border.

On June 3, 1997 the Commission on Internal Migration was established to study the controversial loss of residential units.

While marking the Turkey-Iraq border, Turkey was seeking a way to eliminate the "vacuum of power" created within the north Iraq no-fly zone.

Vacuum of power

In April 1991, Iraqi no-fly zones created during the Gulf War by the enforcing powers related to United Nations Security Council Resolution 688 as authorising the operations, which Boutros Boutros-Ghali called the no-fly zones "illegal" in a later interview with John Pilger [ [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=3106 ZNet] ] [ [http://www.johnpilger.com/page.asp?partid=308 ITV - John Pilger - Labour claims its actions are lawful while it bombs Iraq, strarves its people and sells arms to corrupt states] ] . Turkey supported US-led coalition that formed Iraqi no-fly zones. No-fly zones generated a control vacuum which later used by PKK. Iran did not want to have the no-fly zone that can be easily influenced by US-led coalition.

Iran's response to these activities was also shaped by supporting PKK. In order to adapt to the end of the Soviet System (1991) and gain Iran's support the organization amended or abandoned its communist secular ideology to better accommodate and accept Islamic beliefs. Beginning with 1993, PKK members launched attacks from Iranian soil. Heat-seeking S-7 missiles were given by Iran to prevent Turkish operations in Iraq. Organization used S-7 missiles effectively against Turkey during Turkey's involvement in Iraqi Kurdish Civil War. During the 1990s, Greece and Iran provided PKK with supplies in the form of weapons and funds. [cite news|work=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-01|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/358115.stm|title=Ocalan: Greeks supplied Kurdish rebels|date=1999-06-02]

On October 4, 1992, the Kurdish government in Erbil announed that "PKK should either withdraw from the border bases or be expelled." On March 17, 1993, Öcalan from Lebanon announced a cease-fire from March 20 to April 15 to Talabani . He declared that the PKK did not intend "to separate immediately from Turkey." The organization moved its military camps to Northern Iraq. Syria had only ideological training, intelligence, health and recreation installations.

International discussions were going on about a new state in North Iraq, based on the concept of Iraq Federation. UN channelled money to Iraq Federation. With inclusion of the solution for elimination of the PKK's ability to use North Iraq, Turkey joined the US-led coalition to bring truce among the Iraqi Kurds. Two sets of negotiations were tried. US-brokered Drogheda talks on August 9-11, 1995 appeared to be leading to a settlement of the KDP-PUK fight as well as to security guarantees in the form of the KDP controlling the Turkish border.

Turkey feared that the KDP-PUK conflict would create a power vacuum in northern lraq that would facilitate the organization. [Gunter, 1999, The Kurdish Predicament, page 86.] Turkey performed Operation Steel ( _tr. Çelik Harekâtı) between 20 March and 4 May 1995 before the official negotiations began. Some 35,000 Turkish troops moved into northern Iraq attempting to clean out PKK strongholds during the period March 20-May 2, 1995. This activity was aimed at giving the conditions of Drogheda talks a chance by eliminating the PKK's infrastructure from the region. Operation Steel gave the chance of Iraqi Kurds building their own control system, and prevent the PKK extending its infrastructure again. Drogheda negotiations were killed because of the regional effects on Syria and Iran. To derail this unification, just after the Drogheda Talks II September 12, 1995, PKK launched attacks (September 25, 1995) against the KDP. PKK was saying it can not be ignored.

During 1995 Öcalan declared his intention to form a "National United Front." National United Front summarized its political objective as a "total national democratic liberation war against the escalating total warfare." By establishing some type of government-in-exile or Kurdish federation, PKK was responding to a US-led coalition which was trying to unite Iraqi Kurds.

A second set of failed negotiations among Kurdish groups in Iraq were performed during October 1996 which was called Ankara Peace Process [Gunter, 1999, The Kurdish Predicament, page 87.]

Paramilitary III (1996–1999)

On May 27, 1996 PKK ordered a hunger strike for it's members in the jails. In July , 314 prisoners in 43 prisons in 38 provinces were on fasting to the death and over 2,070 were on hunger strike. Beginning with 1996 organization abandoned its previous strategy of attacking Kurdish civilians which it claimed to be government pupets. It focused on governmental and tourist targets. At the end of 1996, the PKK leader Öcalan signed a cooperation protocol with the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party-Front (DHKP-C).

On December, 1998, Öcalan told the Kurdish satellite television channel Med-TV that his own militants are "no better than murderers". [cite news|work=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-01|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/234429.stm|title=Ocalan renounces armed struggle|date=1998-12-14]

Iraqi Kurdish Civil War (1997)

The Iraqi Kurdish Civil War took place between rival Kurdish factions in the mid 1990s. Over the course of the conflict, the various factions drew Kurdish factions from Iran and Turkey, as well as Iranian, Iraqi, American forces into the fighting. On friendly terms with the PUK, the PKK began attacking ethnic Assyrians and civilians who supported the KDP.http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/puk.htm]

Some of the heaviest fighting of the entire KDP-PUK civil war ensued starting October 13, 1997. Hundreds were killed and thousands displaced. PUK used six GRAD missiles in Suleymaniye. The International community had to do something under these conditions. There were no negotiations to bring a truce. Same missiles were used against villages in Turkey. From Turkey's perspective PUK was trying to push PKK out of North Iraq and KDP was getting support from PKK which was supported by Syria, Iran and Saddam. Turkey intervened on the side of PUK and warned the Talaban not to cooperate with PKK.

On May 12, 1997, Turkish forces launched Operation Hammer in May, in an attempt to root out the PKK from northern Iraq. The operation inflicted heavy casualties, however the organization continued to operate in northern Iraq. The Operation Hammer cost $300 million. Nearly 2000 militants were killed, with a further 132 being captured. This contrasted with 113 fatalities and 325 injured among the Turkish forces.

On September 25, 1997, Turkish forces engaged with Operation Dawn (1997) in northern Iraq. This time they were allied with the KDP and attacked PUK and PKK positions in an attempt to force a cease-fire between the factions. The operation once again resulted in heavy PKK casualties, and a cease-fire was negotiated between the PUK and KDP.

Despite the cease-fire, renewed fighting broke out along the armistice line between the KDP and PUK in October and November. In this round of fighting, 1,200 combatants were killed on both sides and 10,000 civilians fled their homes. A lasting cease-fire was finally established on November 24. Saddam's response to Turkey's help in negotiations between Iraq Kurds was shaped by increasingly assisting the organization.

During the year of 1997, the 3,302 PKK operatives, of whom 484 were captured, 415 surrendered, and 303 arrested, in various operations including those in northern Iraq. During the same period, security forces lost 192 soldiers and 95 others were wounded; in addition, 49 village guards were killed and 14 wounded. Turkish military claimed it gained enough operational structure in the region to monitor organizational movements, but not control or stop them.

In October 1997, Eva Juhnke a german guerrilla fighter from the armed wing of organization captured during a military operation by KDP forces in Nort Iraq. KDP gave this operative to Turkey.

Suicide bombings (1998-1999)

The PKK began using suicide bombings. PKK targets were carefully selected. Large majority of bombers were selected by the organization's leadership . The ones who were rejected killed or turned over police . They did not worried for collateral damage. In eleven out of a total of fifteen attacks were performed by women. Turkey questioned how PKK managed to persuade women to engage. Islam clearly forbade the women's suicide. Professor Dogu Ergil pointed out the women attackers ranged in age from 17 to 27. They came from traditional Kurdish families. The organization at that time was using the argument that the Turkish government is a colonial regime, and that PKK's struggle was in the name of liberation, which is comparable to jihad.

Began on 30 June 1995 and last one on 5 July 1999, the campaign of suicide attacks included fourteen incidents.Edward V. Linden, 2002, "Focus on Terrorism" by Nova Publishers, page 87] Most of the attacks clustered between 1998-199, non exclusive list is: November 17, 1998, December 1, 1998, December 24, 1998, April 9, 1999 and June 7, 1999.

The undeclared war

The undeclared war was the response of Turkey to Syria. In its messages about the undeclared war, Turkey claimed that it is ready to perform any activity to destroy the PKK's operational bases. It ended with the capture of Öcalan and the repositioning of Turkey in relation to the Arab League by taking a new position facing Syria and Iran.

One of the first contacts with Syria about the PKK was in 1987. Turgut Özal personally conducted the negotiations. At the end, there was a protocol which however showed the differences between the countries. Syria did not even admit Öcalan was in Syria.

After the Gulf War, in April 1992, a security agreement was reached between the two states. Both countries agreed on preventing crossing, organization, training or distributing propaganda of outlawed organizations in respective countries. If an agent is captured, he will be exchanged. Marking the border between Turkey and Syria was considered. Every three months security officials were to meet and exchange information on both sides. From international policy perspective, this was the first time Syria accepted that the PKK was a terrorist organization. The public reaction came on November 19–20, 1993, when the Syrian state minister stated that "Öcalan and other terrorists would not be allowed." But besides these exchanges, Syria did not significantly change its attitude toward PKK.

The next development was on August 23, 1994, when Syria officially linked the water issue to the PKK in the summit between Turkey, Syria and Iran. During this summit another interesting development was the Hatay issue, which was brought to table. While the summit was going at Damascus, the PKK was building its structure in Hatay; in July 1995, it performed its first activity there, later using this province as a base to extend its activities to Adana and Mersin; the PKK was extending to the East Mediterranean. This region was one of the centers of immigration from the southeast, and also is a temporary summer work area for the southeast region. For Turkey the region was sensitive, not because of the Kurds, but because of the Arab population. Beginning late 1995, Syrian backing of PKK operations at Hatay was perceived by Turkish governments as an active hostile threat from Syria more than the PKK. The PKK's Hatay operations ended with the undeclared war with Syria.

On September 30, 1995 Damascus opened contacts with high ranking German CDU MP Heinrich Lummer and intelligence officials in Damascus. The CDU demanded PKK end its activities and drug trafficking in Germany. The PKK demanded that it should be recognized as a legitimate entity and not as a terrorist organization. The PKK had been banned in Germany in 1993. If the PKK's demand had passed, it would be a big step for Damascus, not just for the water issues and Hatay demands, but also because a Western country was negotiating with a banned organization. How could the West pressure Syria over terrorism? It would be a big blow to Turkey as the inability to stop terrorism in the country could end with balkanization of the region.

After the Turkish government's decision on the undeclared war with Syria, the military received orders to develop military operational plans, including the worst scenario (regional war: Turkey against Syria, Iran and maybe Greece (1995 military agreement on airbases) and Russia). To counteract a regional war, military agreements with Israel were signed on February 24 and August 26, 1996. These agreements followed with intelligence cooperation in February 1997. Two diplomatic notes were issued during 1996. The first note was for a truck originating in Iran and carrying military equipment to the PKK in Syria. The second one was regarding Syria being a state sponsor of the PKK. Turkey delinked the two issues of water and the PKK. On December 30 1996, MIT smuggled Mustafa Duyur out of Syria. Duyur was a DHKP-C agent who was involved with the Özdemir Sabancı murder. Turkey froze trelations as Damascus was harboring PKK and DHKP-C.

Syria expelled Öcalan.

Capture of Öcalan (1999)

After Syria deported PKK guerrilla leader Öcalan, he passed through various European countries which caused diplomatic crises with Turkey, who sought his extradition on terrorism charges, including involvement in murdering Turkish civilians, troops and police.

His first short stop was at a Greek airport. This was supposed to be a stop on the way to Stockholm. Instead of Stockholm he was transferred to Russia. Russia did not grant him sanctuary. On November 14, 1999, Öcalan arrived in Rome, Italy accompanied by Ramon Mantovani, a member of the Communist Refoundation Party, from Moscow. His arrival was a surprise to the Italian government, which had not been notified, and an international crisis began as Turkey requested Öcalan's extradition.

There were mass rallies in Rome by Kurds, and a wave of sympathy for a people that many did not know of. The Italian government of Massimo D'Alema was not yet able to take a clear stance on whether to satisfy the extradition request. Italian government tried to negotiate a deal with other EU states and try to deal with Interpol's arrest demand. Finally, Öcalan was allowed to leave the country, without revealing his destination, thereby releasing the Italian government from an embarrassing situation. He was apparently sent to Saint Petersburg, Russia, then Athens, Greece. The Greek government moved him to Korfu for a while, then to the Greek Embassy in Kenya.

On February 15, 1999, while being transferred from the Greek embassy to Nairobi international airport, in an operation by the Turkish National Intelligence Agency (MIT). American officials admitted that US intelligence and diplomatic efforts aided in Öcalan's eventual capture cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E03E3D8143DF933A15751C0A96F958260|title=U.S. Helped Turkey Find and Capture Kurd Rebel|publisher=The New York Times|author=Tim Weiner|date=1999-02-20|accessdate=2007-12-15] . He was then flown back to Turkey for trial. His capture led thousands of protesting Kurds to seize Greek embassies around the world. [http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9902/17/ocalan.protest.01/ Kurds seize embassies, wage violent protests across Europe] CNN.com, February 17, 1999]

On August 1999, Öcalan from the jail announced his second peace initiative, ordering members to refrain from violence and requesting dialogue with the government of Turkey on all issues. However, in no time, multiple riots broke out throughout the world near Turkish diplomatic facilities such as Greek embassy in London. [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/280340.stm UK Riot police at London demo] ] A PKK/KADEK spokesman stated that its armed wing, The People’s Defense Force, would not disband or surrender its weapons, to maintain its capability of self-defense. PKK/KADEK avowing to not lay down its arms underscores that the organization maintains its capability to carry out terrorist operations.cite web|title=Kongra-Gel, KADEK, PKK|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/pkk.htm|work=Global Security|accessdate=2005-04-01]

2000-2007

Turkey decided that the termination of PKK could only be archived by termination of their operational grounds. Turkey engaged with strong foreign relations campaign to get international support. On 2 April, 2004, The Council of the European Union (the 15 EU governments) decided to update the European Union list of terrorist organisations to include Kurdistan Workers' Party. This applied to all and any members joining the EU. Turkey also reached an agreement with Tehran in 2002 in which Turkey recognised the Iranian rebel group Mujahideen-e-Khalq as a terrorist organisation in exchange for Iran doing the same for the PKK. However as of 2008, Russia did not list the organization as a terrorist group.

Turkey argued that the Netherlands and Belgium supported the organization by allowing training camps to function in their territories. On November 22 1998, Hanover's criminal police reported that three children had been trained by the PKK for guerrilla warfare in camps in the Netherlands and Belgium. [ [http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/belgium.pdf GlobalMarch report] ] After the death of Theo van Gogh, with increasing attention on domestic security concerns, the Dutch police raided the 'PKK paramilitary camp' in the Dutch town of Liempde and arrested 29 people in November 2004. [cite news | work=Expatica| title = Dutch police raid 'PKK paramilitary camp' | url=http://www.expatica.com/nl/articles/news/dutch-police-raid-pkk-paramilitary-camp-13898.html | accessdate = 2008-07-22 | date=2004-11-12 ]

The changing names

From April 2, 2002 to November 11, 2003, the same day as the European Union updated its list of terrorists, the organization declared that it terminated "Kurdistan Workers Party" and with the same organisational structure formed the " _tr. Kürdistan Demokratik ve Özgürlük Kongresi" (KADEK). The name change to KADEK was claimed as a move towards peaceful politics and co-operation with a wider range of ideologies, but it was pointed that this change was aimed to protect itself from the legal implications of being listed as a terrorist organization. Turkey claimed at the time that KADEK and PKK were identical. Later nations updated their status towards KADEK to be identical to their status towards PKK. From 11 November, 2003 to 4 April, 2005, the KADEK changed its name and operated under the banner of KGK (KONGRA-GEL). In 2004, the armed wing of PKK, HPG (People's Forces of Defence) announced an end to the unilateral truce they had sustained since the time of Öcalan's capture.

Later in 2004, US Treasury amended its regulations to include all the aliases and offshoots of the PKK in its sanctions list maintained by OFAC (Office of Foreign Assets Control). The list aims at blocking terrorist property. The organisations currently listed under PKK aliases include KADEK (Congress for Freedom and Democracy in Kurdistan), KONGRA-GEL, HSK, KHK and PKK.

Changes in financial structure

During this period organization's main sources of financing have shifted, from an extensive state support mainly by Syria and other states interested in weakening Turkey, most of the group's finance originate Kurdish diaspora in Europe and revenue derived from drug trafficking.Michael Jonsson, "Kurds and pay - Examining PKK financing", Jane's Intelligence Review, Mar-2008] During 2007 organization controlled around 40 per cent of the total amount of heroin entering Europe from the east cited from British intelligence estimate.

On March 11 2007 statement by Deputy Chief of General Staff General Ergin Saygun stated that organization gathers some USD 615-770 million annually, whereas a 2007 NATO Terrorist Threat Intelligence Unit report puts the number at a more modest, USD 50-100 million annually. Despite growing support from the United States for Turkey's efforts to curb the PKK's activities in Europe, they have not yet had a significant effect, partly owing to European reluctance to effectively target the group.

Democratization and elections

Organization claimed that it has plans to move towards peaceful politics and co-operation with a wider range of ideologies.

On 17 July 2005, one of the chief executive of the PKK, Hasan Özen who wanted to leave the organization, was murdered in Austria. In Diyarbakir, on 6 July 2005, the PKK killed Hikmet Fidan the former founder of the People’s Democratic Party (HADEP), a legal branch of the PKK, after he split from the PKK and formed an alternative organization called PWD with Osman Ocalan. PKK is killing opposition members within the organization.

During Turkish general election, 2007 a death threat was mailed by organization to CHP, MHP, DYP and AKP to withdraw their Van and Hakkari candidates allowing a DTP dominance.quote|With the exception of DTP all candidates in Van and Hakkari from CHP, MHP, DYP and AKP must withdraw themselves and offer their support to Kurdish people. Our people must demonstrate their Kurdishness in the elections. If any different approach develops, our approach will also be different. [...] Whoever continues the activities we mentioned here will be punished. Who ever damages our movement or our party [DTP] will not be forgiven in any way. They should know that they are facing death.cite news|author=Saygı Öztürk|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ucuncusayfa/6511101.asp?gid=205|title=PKK'dan büyük tehdit|language=Turkish|work=Hürriyet|accessdate=2007-05-14]

Armed conflicts

During the 2003-2005 period there is 246 security personnel soldiers including 21 police, 22 village guard. The total number of personnel wounded and disabled is 147. The total armed militants captured was 1325 which 359 dead, 377 live, and 589 through amnesty given through this period which 116 were exchange of criminals with Iran, Iraq, Syria, Greece, Azerbaijan and Ukraine. The TBMM expected to have an increase in the number of militants captured through exchange of criminals, as part of the global fight on Terror. The period also had an increase in the criminal intelligence exchange.

Reflist

Bibliography

* Antero Leitzinger (2005) "The Roots of Islamic Terrorism: How Communists Helped Fundamentalists"
* Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey A Modern History, London: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd Publishers, 1994,
* Michael M. Gunter, 1999, "The Kurdish Predicament in Iraq" by Macmillan.
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