Robert Charles Zaehner

Robert Charles Zaehner (1913 - 1974) was a British academic who specialised in Eastern religions. He was also an intelligence officer.

Life

Born April 8th 1913 in Sevenoaks, Kent, the son of Swiss immigrants, Zaehner was educated nearby at Tonbridge School. Later admitted to Christ Church, Oxford, he studied Greek, Latin, Persian, and Avestan, gaining first class honours in Oriental Languages. During 1936-37 he studied Pahlavi with Sir Harold Bailey at Cambridge, where he began work on his "Zurvan, a Zoroastrian Dilemma". [Alana Howard, " [http://www.giffordlectures.org/Author.asp?AuthorID=185 Gifford Lecture "Biography"] ."] Zaehner enjoyed "a prodigious gift for languages" and later acquired reading knowledge of Sanskrit (for Hindu scriptures), Pali (for Buddhist), and Arabic (for Islamic). [Michael Dummett, "Introduction" at xi-xix, xiii, to Zaehner's posthumous "The City within the Heart" (New York: Crossroad 1981).] In 1939 he acted as research lecturer at Christ Church, Oxford. After reading the poet Arthur Rimbaud, Rumi the sufi poet, and the Upanishads, he had adopted a "nature mysticism". Yet eventually he would convert to Christianity, becoming a Roman Catholic while stationed in Iran. [Geoffrey Parrinder, "Robert Charles Zaehner (1913-1974)" in "History of Religion" 16: 66-74, 74 (1976).]

During World War II he served starting in 1943 as a British intelligence officer at the British Embassy in Tehran, although he was often in the field among the hill tribes in the northern Iran. Thereafter he filled a diplomatic role in Tehran until 1947. [Alana Howard, "Gifford Lecture "Biography"."] [Nigel West, "At Her Majesty's Secret Service" (Naval Institute Press 2006) at 117. Nigel West is the pen name of Rupert Allason.] A British intelligence officer described his activities:

"I studied Zaehner's Personal File. He was responsible for MI6 counterintelligence in Persia during the war. It was difficult and dangerous work. The railway lines into Russia, carrying vital military supplies, were key targets for German sabotage. Zaehner was perfectly equipped for the job, speaking the local dialects fluently, and much of his time was spent undercover, operating in the murky and cutthroat world of countersabotage. By the end of the war his task was even more fraught. The Russians themselves were trying to gain control of the railway, and Zaehner had to work behind Russian lines, continuously at risk of betrayal and murder by pro-German or pro-Russian... ." [Peter Wright with Paul Greengrass, "Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer" (New York: Viking Penguin 1987) at 244-245. He was then known as Robin Zaehner.]

Returing to Britain he pursued his academic research while also continuing his work as an MI6 officer. During 1949 he was stationed in Malta for the training of anti-Communist Albanians. In 1950 he secured appointment as Lecturer in Persian at Oxford University. He returned briefly to Iran during 1951 to perform government service. [Alana Howard, "Gifford Lecture "Biography"."]

When in Tehran that year he held the rank of Counsellor. In fact, he continued as an MI6 officer, now assigned to prolong the Shah's hold on the Peacock Throne from the republican challenge led by Mohammed Mossadegh, the Prime Minister of Iran. Zaehner was engaged in the effort to regain also Iran's oil production for a British government-controlled entity, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, taken over by Iran's nationalization. [The 1951 coup staged by Britain alone failed due to Mossadegh's popularity and Iranian nationalism. In 1953 a joint Anglo-American coup toppled Mossadegh, returned the Shah to power, and restored the oilfields, but sowed the seeds of lasting mistrust. Cf., Mehrzad Boroujerdi, "Iranian Intellectuals and the West. The tormented triumph of nativism" (Syracuse Univ. 1996) at 33, 38-39.] " [T] he plot to overthrow Mossadegh and give the oilfields back to the AIOC was in the hands of a British diplomat called Robin Zaehner, later professor of Eastern religions at Oxford." [Robert Fisk, [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article4588.htm "Another Fine Mess"] . "It was Zaehner who had cultivated the Rashidian brothers, each of whom had worked against German influence in Iran during the Second World War."] [For the 1951 attempted overthrow Zaehner is said to have enlisted the support of politicians, editors, aristocrats, army officers, tribal chiefs, businessmen, and others, including several associates of Mossadegh. [http://www.iran-e-azad.org/english/special/chap12.html N.C.R.I.-F.A.C.] ] In the 1960s, MI5 counter-intelligence officer Peter Wright questioned Zaehner about allegations that he had been a spy for the Soviet Union, harming British intelligence operations in Iran and Albania during the period following World War II. Zaehner is described as "a small, wiry-looking man, clothed in the distracted charm of erudition." Wright wrote in his 1987 book "Spycatcher" that Zaehner's humble demeanor and candid denial convinced him that the Oxford don had remained loyal to Britain. Wright notes that "I felt like a heel" for confronting Zaehner. [Peter Wright with Paul Greengrass, "Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer" (New York: Viking Penguin 1987) at 245-246. Wright states that, "I felt bitter at the ease with which the accusation had been made," and for his subjecting a loyal colleague to hearing the false charges.]

Back at the university in 1952 he was elected "Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics" to succeed the celebrated professor and statesman Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. His inaugeral lecture was unconventional in content, Zaehner delivering a strong yet witty criticism of "universalism" in religion. [Michael Dummett, "Introduction" at xii-xiii, to Zaehner's posthumous "The City within the Heart" (1981).] Then, as a fellow at All Souls College, he served Oxford in this academic chair until his death in 1974, and never married. Invited to deliver in Scotland the Gifford Lectures, he did so at the University of St. Andrews during the years 1967-1969. [Alana Howard, "Gifford Lecture "Biography"."] "Zaehner was a scholar who turned into something different, something more important than a scholar." With a professor's knowledge he saw what now had became of key importance in the spiritual life, and wrote abundantly. [Michael Dummett, "Introduction" at xii, to Zaehner's posthumous "The City within the Heart" (1981).]

He died on November 24th 1974. " [A] t the age of sixty-one he fell down dead in the street on his way to Sunday evening Mass." [Michael Dummett, "Introduction" at xviii, to Zaehner's posthumous "The City within the Heart" (1981).]

Academic works

Initially his reputation rested for the most part on his studies of Zoroastrianism, notably his book, "Zurvan, a Zoroastrian dilemma" (1955), an original scholarly discussion of the theological deviation from the stark Zoroastrian dualism promoted by the newly ascendant Sasanian dynasty. Perhaps somewhat analogous to original Zoroastrian doctrine, [Zaehner, "Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism" (New York: Putnam 1961) at 34, 42-46, 178-183, 246-247. Basically, in the original doctrine the benevolent "Ahura Mazda" created both the "Spenta Mainyu" (the Holy Spirit) and the "Angra Mainyu" (the Aggressive Spirit), who chose to turn evil. The two created "Mainyu"s were considered twins, one good, one evil. Over the centuries "Ahura Mazda" and his "messenger" the good "Spenta Mainyu" became nearly identified, hence the creator "Ahura Mazda" began to be mistaken as the twin of the evil "Angra Mainyu". In this guise, Zoroastrianism was starkly dualistic. Later "Zurvan" (Time) was said to have been the cause of both the original creator "Ahura Mazda" and his creation "Angra Mainyu" the evil one. However, very different schools of Zurvanism complicate the picture. Also, "Ahura Mazda" became called "Ohrmazd", and "Angra Mainyu" became "Ahriman".] Zurvanism in its various forms starting in the third century C.E. became very influential. Zurvan could be described as divinized time, from which would spring both the ethical creator godhead Ahura Mazda, who is worshipped, and his satanic antagonist Angra Mainyu, whom believers fight against. Zaehner also wrote from a wider perspective in his "The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism" (1961), where he explores the era of the founding of the religion by its prophet Zarathushtra (for whom Zaehner gives traditional sixth century B.C.E. dates), and later its decline, when there arose doctrines concerning "Zurvan i Akanarak" [Infinite Time] , and of the savior Saoshyans. [Zaehner, "Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism" (New York: Putnam 1961) at 33; 181.] [Zaehner, "The Comparison of Religions" (London: Faber & Faber 1958; reprint Boston: Beacon Press 1962) at 134-153, "Prophets outside Israel".] Facets of his interpretation of Zoroastrian religious history are novel. [Sometimes Zaehner differ with, e.g., Mary Boyce, i.e., Zaehner discounts the Parthian period, as not known to be authentically Zoroastrian. Compare: her "Zoroastrians. Their Religious Beliefs and Practices" (1979, 1985) at 80-82; and, his "Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism" (1961) at 22, 175. Boyce also favors an earlier dating (1400 to 1000 B.C.E.) for the prophet Zarathushtra in her "A History of Zoroastrianism, volume 1" (Leiden/Köln: E.J.Brill 1975) at 190.]

Zaehner wrote extensively on comparative religion, [E.g., "At Sundry Times" (1958); "Christianity and other Religions (1962). He focused primarily on Hinduism and Islam, yet he demonstrated wide learning across many areas.] as well as on mysticism. Prominent among his contributions, Zaehenr criticized on several ocasions the simple idea of the mystical unity of all religions; he based his contrary ideas and proposals on the historic texts written by well-known mystics of various traditions, which contain descriptions of their experiences, often with their interpretive theology as well. [E.g., Zaehner, "Mysticism. Sacred and Profane" (Oxford Univ. 1957, 1961) at 168.] In his innovative book comparing the mystical literature and practice of Hinduism and Islam, he includes this theme of the diversity of mystical phenomena. [Zaehner, "Hindu and Muslim Mysticism" (Univ.of London 1960, reprint Schocken Books 1969), "Preface" at vii-viii.] He introduces here a description and discussion of five different types of mysticism to be found in Indian tradition: "the sacrificial, the Upanishadic, the Yogic, the Buddhistic, and that of "bhakti"." [Zaehner, "Hindu and Muslim Mysticism" (1960, 1969) at 6-11. Zaehner references S. N. Dasgupta, his "A History of Indian Philosophy" (Cambridge 1951), and his "Hindu Mysticism" (Chicago 1927).] Zaehner relies on Hindu mystics because of their relative freedom from creed or dogma. He leaves aside the first (of historic interest), and the fourth (due to the definitions of nirvana), so that as exemplars of mystical experience he presents: (a) the Upanishadic "I am this All" which can be subdivided into (i) a theistic interpretaion or (ii) a monistic; (b) the Yogic "unity" outside space and time, either (i) of the eternal monad of the mystic's own individual soul per the "Yoga Sutras" of Patanjali or (ii) of Brahman, the ground of the universe, per the advaita Vedanta of Sankara; and, (c) the bhakti mysticism of love, per the commentary on the Bagavad Gita by Ramanuja. [Zaehner, "Hindu and Muslem Mysticism" (1960, 1969) at 19, 6 & 10; (a) 7-9, 17; (b) 9-10, 13, 17; (c) 11, 14-16, 17-18. Zaehner quotes at length from Martin Buber on mystical experience, at 17-18.] On these experiential foundations, Zaehner explores the spiritual treasures left to us by the mystics of the Santana Dharma and of Islam.

During the 1940s which he spent in Iran he had returned to the Christian faith, converting to Catholicism. Accordingly, he also published several comparative works expressly from that perspective. [See "Zaehner bibliography".]

Zaehner gave the Gifford Lectures during the years 1967-1969. In these sessions he presented a grand historical overview of how the different religions have provided a mutuality of nurishment, and also have interpenetrated each other's beliefs. The historically obfuscated result is that neighboring religions might develop the other's theological insights as their own, as well as employ the other's distinctions to accent and explain their own doctrines to themselves. Zaehner also provided a suggestive commentary regarding, e.g., the conjunction of unique and differing faiths. These Lectures were later published as "Concordant Discord. The Interdependence of Faiths". [Oxford University, 1970.]

Popular works

Like Aldous Huxley he had taken mescalin, but Zaehner came to a different conclusion. In his 1957 book "Mysticism. Sacred and Profane. An Inquiry into some Varieties of Praeternatural Experience", [Oxford University 1957, 1961. Although this book includes descriptions of the author's experience with mescalin, and lengthy discussions of popular culture, its scholarship is not wanting.] he aims to uphold a distinction between an amoral monism on the one hand and theistic mysticism on the other. In part he relies on the personal experience recorded by Martin Buber. [Zaehner, "Mysticism. Sacred and Profane (1957, 1961) at v of the "Preface".] Here and elsewhere, he thus sets himself against Huxley's adoption of the Perennial Philosophy. [Zaehner, "Our Savage God" (New York: Sheed & Ward 1974) at 10-12.(] [Zaehner, "Mysticism. Sacred and Profane (1957, 1961) at 27-29.]

In his later book "Our Savage God", especially in his essay "Rot in the Clockwork Orange", [Zaehner, "Our Savage God" (1974), at 19-73.] Zaehner argued against aspects of an ancient monism which he saw as leading logically to excess, not only of the kind propagated by Timothy Leary, or even earlier by the rather sinister Aleister Crowley, but ultimately to the criminal depravity of Charles Manson. [Here he follows the book by Ed Sanders, "The Family" (1972), with its theatrical, philosophical view of the murders.] Here Zaehner provides a warning how the misuse of theology can result in horror.

Quotations

*This does not, however, mean that God created evil, for Zoroastrianism is the religion of free will "par excellence". The Evil Spirit "chooses" to do the worst things: his initial act of "will" is evil, not necessarily his nature. [Zaehner, "The Comparison of Religions" (London: Faber & Faber 1958).]

*There is indeed a sharp division between those religions whose characteristic form of religious experience is prayer and adoration of Pascal’s God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob on the one hand, and religions in which sitting postures designed to find the God within you are thought to be the most appropriate way of approaching the Deity. [Zaehner, "Our Savage God" (1974) at 234.]

*Aristotle claimed to have known God "for a short time" only, but that was enough. He was never so immodest as to claim that he had known the "Truth", for he knew that this is reserved for God alone. [Zaehner, "The City within the Heart" (New York: Crossroad 1981) at 136.]

*The whole ascetic tradition, whether it be Buddhist, Platonist, Manichaean, Christian or Islamic, springs from that most polluted of all sources, the Satanic sin of pride, the desire to be "like gods". [Zaehner, "Our Savage God" (1974) at 235.]

*One quite arresting resemblance between Zoroastrianism and Christianity remains to be noticed. This is the Haoma sacrifice and sacrament which seems to foreshadow the Catholic Mass in so strange a way. [Zaehner, "The Comparison of Religions" (London: Faber & Faber 1958) at 152.]

*True, the human phylum did not split up into separate subspecies as has been the case with other animal species, but it did split up into different religions and cultures, each having its own particular flavor, and each separated from the rest. With the outpouring of the Holy Spirit... the scattering of man which is symbolized by the Tower of Babel comes to an end: the Church of Christ is born and the symbol of unity and union is found. [Zaehner, "Matter and Spirit" (New York: Harper & Row 1963) at 199.]

Reference notes

Zaehner Bibliography

*"Zurvan. A Zoroastrian Dilemma". Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1955.
*"The Teachings of the Magi. A compendium of Zoroastrian beliefs". George Allen & Unwin, 1956.
*"Mysticism: Sacred and Profane". Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1957.
*"The Comparison of Religions" Faber & Faber, London, 1958.
*"At Sundry Times. An essay in the comparison of religions". Faber & Faber, London, 1958.
*"Hindu and Muslim Mysticism". University of London, Athlone Press, 1960.
*"The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism". Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1961.
*"Hinduism". Oxford University Press, London, 1962.
*"The Convergent Spirit. Towards a dialectics of Religion." Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1963.
*"Matter and Spirit. Their convergence in Eastern Religions, Marx, and Teilhard de Chardin". Harper & Row, New York, 1963.
*"The Catholic Church and World Religions". Burns & Oates, London, 1964.
*"Christianity and other Religions." Hawthorn Books, New York, 1964.
*"Concordant Discord. The Interdependence of Faiths." Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1970.
*"Evolution in Religion. A study of Sri Aurobindo and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin." Oxford Univ. 1971.
*"Dialectical Christianity and Christian Materialism." Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1971.
*"Drugs, Mysticism and Make-believe". Collins, London, 1972.
*"Our Savage God. The Perverse use of Eastern Thought." Sheed & Ward, New York, 1974.
*"Foolishness to the Greeks." Paris: Desclée de Brouwer 1974.
*"The City within the Heart." Crossroad, New York, 1981. Introduction by Michael Dummett.AS EDITOR/TRANSLATOR:
*"Hindu Scriptures." Translated and edited by R.C.Zaehner. J.M.Dent, London, 1966.
*"The Bhagavad Gita." With commentary based on the ancient sources. Translated by R.C.Zaehner. Oxford Univ. 1969.
*"The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths." Edited by R.C.Zaehner. Hawthorn Books, New York, 1959.

Other material

*Mary Boyce, "Zoroastrians. Their Religious Beliefs and Practices". Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1979.
*Ann K. S. Lambton, "Obituary: Robert Charles Zaehner" in "B.S.O.A.S." 38/3: 623-624 (1975).
*Geoffrey Parrinder, "Robert Charles Zaehner (1913-1974)" in "History of Religions" 16/1: 66-74 (Univ.of Chicago 1976).
*Peter Wright with Paul Greengrass, "Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer". Stoddart, Toronto, 1987.

External links

[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Author.asp?AuthorID=185 Gifford Lecture "Biography"]

ee also

*Comparative Religion
*History of Religions
*Religious studies
*Zoroastrianism
*Interfaith dialogue