Songtsän Gampo

Infobox Monarch
name =Songtsän Gampo
title =Emperor of Tibet


caption =
reign =
coronation =
othertitles =
full name = Songtsän Gampo
native_lang1 =Tibetan
native_lang1_name1=སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་
native_lang2 =Wylie transliteration
native_lang2_name1=Srong-btsan sGam-po
native_lang3 =transcription (PRC)
native_lang3_name1=Songzain Gambo
native_lang4 =THDL
native_lang4_name1=Songtsen Gampo
native_lang5 =
native_lang5_name1=
predecessor =
successor =Mangsong Mangtsen
suc-type =
heir =
issue =
royal house =
dynasty =
royal anthem =
father = Namri Löntsen (Gnam-ri-slon-mtshan)
mother =
date of birth =617
place of birth =
date of death = 649
place of death =
date of burial =
place of burial = |

Songtsän Gampo (Tibetan: སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་, Wylie: "Srong-btsan sGam-po", 605 or 617? - 649) was the founder of the Tibetan empire (Tufan 吐蕃), by tradition held to be the thirty-third ruler in his dynasty. In the Chinese records his name is given as "Qizonglongzan". [Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. "Tibet: A Political History" (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.]

The dates of his birth and when he took the throne are not certain. In Tibetan accounts it is generally accepted that he was born in 617 (one year before the founding of the Tang Dynasty, when Gaozu became emperor of China). As he is thought to have ascended the throne at age thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), by this reckoning c. 629 CE. [Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. "Tibet: A Political History" (1967), p. 25. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.] [Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (1987), p. 19 and note 31). Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.]

There are difficulties with this position, however, and several earlier dates for the birth of Songtsän Gampo have been suggested, including 569, 605 or 593. ["Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project". 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, pp. 222-225.] The question must remain open.

After his father, Namri Songzen, was poisoned (circa 618?), he ascended the throne while still a minor (i.e. before he was 13 - or 12 by Western reckoning). [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 443.]

Early life and cultural background

It is said that Songtsän Gampo was born at Gyama, in Maldro (a region to the northeast of modern Lhasa), the son of the Yarlung king, Namri Löntsen. According to Tibetan tradition, Songstän Gampo was enthroned as the thirty-third king of the Yarlung Dynasty, after his father was poisoned circa 618, [Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. "The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages". Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, pp. 19-20 (OTC, vi).] He is said to have been born in an unspecified Ox year and was 13 years old (14 by Western reckoning), when he took the throne. This accords with the tradition that the Yarlung kings took the throne when they were 13, and supposedly old enough to ride a horse and rule the kingdom. [Vitali, Roberto. 1990. "Early Temples of Central Tibet". Serindia Publications, London, p. 70. ISBN 0-906026-25-3] If these traditions are correct, he was probably born in the Ox year 605 CE. The "Jiu Tangshu" or "Book of Tang" confirms that he "was still a minor when he succeeded to the throne.". [Snellgrove, David. 1987. "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors". 2 Vols. Shambhala, Boston, Vol. II, p. 372.] [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 443.]

Songtsän Gampo is said to have sent his minister Thonmi Sambhota to India to devise a script for the Tibetan language, which led to the creation of the first Tibetan literary works and translations, court records and a constitution. [Dudjom Rinpoche and Jikdrel Yeshe Dorje. "The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: its Fundamentals and History". Two Volumes. 1991. Translated and edited by Gyurme Dorje with Matthew Kapstein. Wisdom Publications, Boston. ISBN 0-86171-087-8]

Songtsän Gampo is also credited with bringing many new cultural and technological advances to Tibet. The "Tangshu" or "Book of Tang" states that after the defeat in 648 of an Indian army in support of Chinese envoys, the Chinese Emperor, Gaozong, a devout Buddhist, gave him the title (variously written "Binwang", "Guest King" or "Zongwang", "Cloth-tribute King") and 3,000 rolls of multicoloured silk in 649, [Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. "The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages". Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, p. 25, n. 71.] and granted the Tibetan king's request for:

:"... silkworms' eggs, mortars and presses for making wine, and workmen to manufacture paper and ink." [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 446.]

Traditional accounts say that, during the reign of Songtsän Gampo, examples of handicrafts and astrological systems were imported from China and Minyag; Dharma and the art of writing came from India; material wealth and treasures from Nepalis and the lands of the Mongols, while model laws and administration were imported from the Uighurs to the north. [Sakyapa Sonam Gyaltsen. (1328). "Clear Mirror on Royal Genealogy". Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthok as: "The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age", p. 106. (1996) Snow Lion Publications. Ithica, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.]

Introduction of Buddhism

Songtsän Gampo is traditionally credited with being the first to bring Buddhism to the Tibetan people. Legend credits him as having invited to Tibet outstanding Buddhist teachers, such as Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava, even though both lived in the 8th century, i.e. more than a century after Songtsän Gampo lived. He is also said to have built many Buddhist temples, including the Jokhang in Lhasa and Changzhug in Nêdong.

Songtsän Gampo is considered to be the first of the three Dharma Kings ("chosgyal") — Songtsän Gampo, Trisong Detsen, and Ralpacan — who established Buddhism in Tibet.

The inscription on the Skar-cung pillar (erected by Ralpacan, who ruled c. 800-815) reports that during Songtsän Gampo's reign, "shrines of the Three Jewels were established by building the temple of Ra-sa [Lhasa] and so on". [Richardson, Hugh. "A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions" (1981), p. 75. Royal Asiatic Society, London. ISBN 0-94759300/4.] The first edict of Trisong Detsen mentions a community of monks at this vihara. [Beckwith, C. I. "The Revolt of 755 in Tibet", p. 3 note 7. In: "Weiner Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde". Nos. 10-11. [Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher, eds. "Proceedings of the Csoma de Kőrös Symposium Held at Velm-Vienna, Austria, 13-19 September 1981". Vols. 1-2.] Vienna, 1983.]

620s

Songtsän Gampo was adept at diplomacy as well as on the field of battle. The king's minister, Myang Mang-po-rje, with the aid of troops from Zhang Zhung, defeated the Sumpa (Chinese: Subi) people in north-eastern Tibet circa 627 ("Old Tibetan Annals" ["OTA"] l. 2).

Songtsän Gampo is traditionally said to have married the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti Devi, [Stein, R. A. (1972). "Tibetan Civilization", p. 58. Stanford University Press, Stanford California. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.] (which, if true, probably took place sometime before 624). ["Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project". 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 225.] Although the story of this marriage is legendary, it is widely believed by Tibetans and some scholars acknowledge "it is quite likely to have taken place"." [Snellgrove, David (1987) "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists & Their Tibetan Successors", Vol. II, p. 373. Shambhala, Boston. ISBN 0-87773-379-1.(]

630s

Six years later (c. 632/633) Myang Mang-po-rje Zhang-shang was accused of treason and executed ("OTA" l. 4-5, Richardson 1965). Minister Mgar-srong-rtsan succeeded him.

The "Jiu Tangshu" records the first ever embassy from Tibet arrived in China from Songtsän Gampo in the 8th Zhenguan year or 634 CE.Lee 1981, pp. 6-7] Tang dynasty chronicles describe this as a tribute mission, but it brought an ultimatum demanding a marriage alliance, not subservient rituals. After this demand was refused, Tibet launched victorious military attacks against Tang affiliates in 637 and 638.Powers 2004, pg. 31]

The Conquest of Zhang Zhung

There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhang Zhung during the reign of Songtsän Gampo or in the reign of Trisong Detsän, (r. 755 until 797 or 804 CE). [Karmey, Samten G. (1975). "'A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon", p. 180. "Memoirs of Research Department of The Toyo Bunko", No, 33. Tokyo.] The records of the Tang Annals do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsän Gampo for they say that in 634, Yangtong (Zhang Zhung) and various Qiang tribes "altogether submitted to him." Following this he united with the country of Yangtong to defeat the 'Azha or Tuyuhun, and then conquered two more tribes of Qiang before threatening Songzhou with an army of (according to the Chinese) more than 200,000 men (100,000 according to Tibetan sources). He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, attacked Songzhou. According to the Tang annals, he finally retreated and apologised and later the emperor granted his request,Lee 1981, pp. 7-9] Pelliot 1961, pp. 3-4] but the histories written in Tibet all claim that the Tibetan army defeated the Chinese, and that the Tang emperor delivered a bride under threat of force.Powers 2004, pp. 168-9]

Early Tibetan accounts say that the Tibetan king and the king of Zhang Zhung had married each other's sisters in a political alliance. However, the Tibetan wife of the king of the Zhang Zhung complained of poor treatment by the king's principal wife. War ensued and through the treachery of the Tibetan princess, "King Ligmikya of Zhangzhung, while on his way to "Sum-ba" (Amdo province) was ambushed and killed by King Srongtsen Gampo's soldiers. As a consequence, The Zhangzhung kingdom was annexed to Bod [Central Tibet] . Thereafter the new kingdom born of the unification of Zhangzhung and Bod was known as Bod rGyal-khab." [Norbu, Namkhai. (1981). "The Necklace of Gzi, A Cultural History of Tibet", p. 30. Information Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama, Dharamsala, H.P., India.] [Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987). "The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia", p. 20. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Fourth printing with new afterword and 1st paperback version. ISBN 0-691-02469-3.] [Allen, Charles. "The Search for Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History", pp. 127-128. (1999). Reprint: (2000). Abacus, London. ISBN 0-349-11142-1.] R. A. Stein places the conquest of Zhang Zhung in 645. [Stein, R. A. (1972). "Tibetan Civilization", p. 59. Stanford University Press, Stanford California. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.]

Further Campaigns

He next attacked and defeated the Dangxian, or "Western Xia" people (who later formed the Tangut state in 942 CE), the Bailan, and other Qiang tribes. [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, pp. 443-444.] [Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. "The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages". Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, pp. 22-23.] The Bailan people, were bounded on the east by the Tanguts and on the west by the Domi. They had been subject to the Chinese since 624. [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 528, n. 13]

After a successful campaign against China in the frontier province of Songzhou in 635–6 ("OTA" l. 607), [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 444.] the Chinese emperor agreed to send a Chinese princess for Songtsän Gampo to marry.

Circa 639, after Songtsän Gampo had a dispute with his younger brother Tsänsong ("Brtsan-srong"), the younger brother was burnt to death by his own minister Khäsreg ("Mkha’s sregs") (possibly at the behest of his older brother, the emperor).Richardson, Hugh E. (1965). "How Old was Srong Brtsan Sgampo," "Bulletin of Tibetology" 2.1. pp. 5-8.] [OTA l. 8-10]

640s

The "(Jiu) Tangshu", or "Book of Tang", records that when the king of 泥婆羅, "Nipoluo" ("Nepal"),Pelliot 1961, pg. 12] the father of Licchavi, king Naling Deva (or Narendradeva), died, an uncle, "Yu.sna kug.ti", Vishnagupta) usurped the throne. [Vitali, Roberto. 1990. "Early Temples of Central Tibet". Serindia Publications, London, p. 71. ISBN 0-906026-25-3] "The Tibetans gave him refuge and reestablished him on his throne [in 641] ; that is how he became subject to Tibet." [Snellgrove, David. 1987. "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors". 2 Vols. Shambhala, Boston, Vol. II, p. 372.] [Chavannes, Édouard . "Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux". 1900. Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969, p. 186.] [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, pp. 529, n. 31.]

Sometime later, but still within the Zhenguan period (627-650 CE), the Tibetans sent an envoy to Nepal where the king received him "joyfully" and, later, when a Tibetan mission was attacked in India around 647, [Stein, R. A. "Tibetan Civilization" 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk., p. 59.] the Nepalese king came to their aid. [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, pp. 529-530, n. 31.]

The Chinese Princess Wencheng, niece of the Emperor Taizong of Tang China, left China in 640 to marry Songtsän Gampo, arriving the next year. Peace between China and Tibet prevailed for the remainder of Songtsän Gampo's reign.

Both wives are considered to have been incarnations of Tara (Tibetan: "Drolma"), the Goddess of Compassion, the female aspect of Chenrezig:

:"Dolma, or Drolma (Sanskrit "Tara"). The two wives of Emperor Srong-btsan gambo are worshipped under this name. The Chinese princess is called Dol-kar, of "the white Dolma," and the Nepalese princess Dol-jang, or "the green Dolma." The latter is prayed to by women for fecundity." [Das, Sarat Chandra. (1902), "Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet". Reprint: Mehra Offset Press, Delhi. 1988, p. 165, note.]

The "Tangshu" or "Book of Tang" adds that Songstän Gampo thereupon built a city for the Chinese princess, and palace for her within its walls.

:"As the princess disliked their custom of painting their faces red, Lungstan (Songtsän Gampo) ordered his people to put a stop to the practice, and it was no longer done. He also discarded his felt and skins, put on brocade and silk, and gradually copied Chinese civilization. He also sent the children of his chiefs and rich men to request admittance into the national school to be taught the classics, and invited learned scholars from China to compose his official reports to the emperor." [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 545.]

However, according to Tibetologist John Powers, such accounts of Tibet embracing Chinese culture through Wencheng, are not corroborated by Tibetan histories.Powers 2004, pp. 30-38]

Songtsän Gampo’s sister Sad-mar-kar was sent to marry Lig-myi-rhya, the king of Zhang-zhung. However, when the king refused to consummate the marriage, she then helped Songtsän Gampo to defeat Lig myi-rhya and incorporate the Zhang-zhung of Western Tibet into the Tibetan Empire in 645, [Stein, R. A. "Tibetan Civilization" 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk., p. 59.] thus gaining control of most, if not all, of the Tibetan plateau.

Following the visit by the famous Chinese pilgrim monk, Xuanzang, to the court of Harsha, the king of Magadha, Harsha sent a mission to China which, in turn, responded by sending an embassy consisting of Li Yibiao and Wang Xuanze who probably travelled through Tibet, and whose journey is commemorated in inscriptions at Rajagrha - modern Rajgir, and Bodhgaya.

Wang Xuanze made a second journey in 648 but he was badly treated by Harsha's successor and his mission plundered. This elicited a response from Tibetan and Nepalese troops who, together, soundly defeated the Indians. [Stein, R. A. "Tibetan Civilization" 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk., pp. 58-59] [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 446]

In 649, King of Xihai Jun was conferred upon Songtsen Gampo by Tang Gaozong, the emperor of Tang Dynasty.

According to the Tibetan Annals, Songtsän Gampo must have died in 649, [Bacot, J., et al. "Documents de Touen-houang relatifs à l'Histoire du Tibet". (1940), p. 30. Libraire orientaliste Paul Geunther, Paris.] and in 650 the Tang emperor sent an envoy with a "letter of mourning and condolences".Lee 1981, p. 13] His tomb is in the Chongyas Valley near Yalung. [Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. "Tibet: A Political History" (1967), p. 29. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.]

Songtsän Gampo was succeeded by his infant grandson Mangsong Mangtsen or "Khri-mang-slon-rtsan", 650-676 CE. Real power was left in the hands of the minister Mgar-srong-rtsan. [Bushell, S. W. "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources." "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Vol. XII, 1880, p. 446.] ["Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project". 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 230.] After this point the dates in Tibetan history become somewhat firmer.

Songtsän Gampo's family and wives

Some Dunhuang documents say that, as well as his sister Sad-mar-kar (or Sa-tha-ma-kar), Songtsän Gampo had a younger brother who was betrayed and died in a fire, sometime after 641. Apparently, according to one partially damaged scroll from Dunhuang, there was hostility between Sa-tha-ma-kar and Songtsän Gampo's younger brother, bTzan-srong, who, as a result, was forced to settle in gNyal (an old district to the southeast of Yarlung and across the 5,090 metre (16,700 ft) Yartö Tra Pass, which bordered on modern Bhutan and Arunachel Pradesh in India). But little, if anything, else is known about this brother. ["Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project". 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 216.] [Choephel, Gedun. "The White Annals". Translated by Samten Norboo. (1978), p. 77. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India.]

Songtsän Gampo is said to have had five wives. Nepalese princess Khri b'Tsun, or "Royal Lady" (Bhrikuti Devi), [Snellgrove, David. 1987. "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors". 2 Vols. Shambhala, Boston, Vol. II, p. 416.] and the Chinese Princess Wencheng, both devout Buddhists, are the best known, but he also married daughters of the King of Zhang-zhung and the King of Minyak, as well as one each from the Ruyong and Mong (or Mang) clans (although other lists exist). [Stein, R. A. "Tibetan Civilization" 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 62. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk.]

Songtsän Gampo's only son, Gungsrong Gungtsen (Gung-srong gung-btsan), was born to Mangza Tricham (Mang bza' Khri lcham or Mang bza' Khri-mo-mnyen lDong-steng), Princess of Mang, from Tolung (sTod lung), a valley to the west of Lhasa. ["Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project". 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 215, 224-225.] [Gyaltsen, Sakyapa Sonam (1312-1375). "The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age", p. 188. Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthob. (1996) Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.] [Stein, R. A. "Tibetan Civilization" 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 63. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk.]

Some accounts say that when Gungsrong Gungtsen reached the age of thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), his father, Songtsän Gampo, retired and he ruled for five years (which could have been the period when Songtsän Gampo was working on the new constitution). Gungsrong Gungtsen is also said to have married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650-676 CE). Gungsrong Gungtsen is said to have only ruled for five years when he died at eighteen. His father, Songtsän Gampo, took the throne again. [Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. (1967). "Tibet: A Political History", p. 27. Yale University Press. New Haven and London.] Gungsrong Gungtsen is said to have been buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of the tomb of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan). The dates for these events are very unclear. ["Ancient Tibet: Research materials from the Yeshe De Project". 1986. Dharma Publishing, California. ISBN 0-89800-146-3, p. 215, 224-225.] [Gyaltsen, Sakyapa Sonam (1312-1375). "The Clear Mirror: A Traditional Account of Tibet's Golden Age", p. 192. Translated by McComas Taylor and Lama Choedak Yuthob. (1996) Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, New York. ISBN 1-55939-048-4.] [Stein, R. A. "Tibetan Civilization" 1962. Revised English edition, 1972, Faber & Faber, London. Reprint, 1972. Stanford University Press, p. 63. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 pbk.]

Songtsän Gampo was followed by his grandson, Mangsong Mangtsen, probably in 650 CE.

Footnotes

References

*Lee, Don Y. "The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey" (1981) Eastern Press, Bloomington, Indiana. ISBN 0-939758-00-8
*Pelliot, Paul. "Histoire ancienne du Tibet" (1961) Librairie d'Amérique et d'orient, Paris
*Powers, John. "History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China" (2004) Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195174267
*Richardson, Hugh E. (1965). "How Old was Srong Brtsan Sgampo" "Bulletin of Tibetology" 2.1. pp 5-8.

External links

* [http://www.asianart.com/articles/jaya/kings.html] A list of Licchavi kings and their attributed dates, from: "A Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varma-, A.D. 184/185. Kathmandu, Nepal." Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop. See: [http://www.asianart.com/articles/jaya/index01_12.html]