Japanese war crimes
Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. Some of the incidents have also been described as an Asian Holocaustcite news| first=Ralph |last=Blumenthal |title=The World: Revisiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeakable to the Unthinkable |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B05E6DB153FF934A35750C0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink |work= Definitions International and Japanese law Although the Empire of Japan did not sign the In Japan, the term "Japanese war crimes" generally only refers to cases tried by the Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's governments have accepted the judgments made in the trials, and in the Historical and geographical extent Outside Japan, different societies use widely different timeframes in defining Japanese war crimes.Fact|date=July 2008 For example, the annexation of By comparison, the Japanese war crimes were not always carried out by ethnic Japanese personnel. A small minority of people in every Asian and Pacific country invaded and/or occupied by Japan collaborated with the Japanese military, or even served in it, for a wide variety of reasons, such as economic hardship, coercion, or antipathy to other Japan's Background Japanese military culture and imperialism "Main articles: Military culture, especially during Japan's imperialist phase had great bearing on the conduct of the Japanese military before and during Centuries previously, the As with other imperial powers, Japanese popular culture became increasingly Victory in the Unlike the other major powers, Japan did not sign the The events of the 1930s and 1940s By the late 1930s, the rise of militarism in Japan created at least superficial similarities between the wider Japanese military culture and that of As in other dictatorships, irrational brutality, hatred and fear became commonplace. Perceived failure, or insufficient devotion to the Emperor would attract punishment, frequently of the physical kind. In the military, officers would assault and beat men under their command, who would pass the beating on to lower ranks, all the way down. In POW camps, this meant prisoners received the worst beatings of all. [cite book The crimes Because of the sheer scale of suffering caused by the Japanese military during the 1930s and 1940s, it is often compared to the military of :"It may be pointless to try to establish which World War Two Axis aggressor, Germany or Japan, was the more brutal to the peoples it victimised. The Germans killed six million According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate among POWs from Asian countries, held by Japan was 27.1%. [Yuki Tanaka, 1996, "Hidden Horrors", p.2-3] The death rate of Chinese POWs was much larger because — under a directive ratified on August 5, 1937 by Emperor Allied soldiers in Pacific and Asian theatres were guilty of the same "cruelty and callous disregard for civilized norms" as Japanese soldiers, according to historian Jeff Kingston, referring to the treatment of POWs, among other issues. [ [http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20020224a2.html Jeff Kingston, "Images of a common brutality" ("Japan Times", February 24, 2002)] Accessed: 26/05/2007. (Kingston is a history professor at Temple University Japan.)] Kingston quoted documentary film makers Jonathan Lewis and Ben Steele, who said: "the impression of the war as a history of Japanese savagery alone has been eroded by the growing body of evidence of Allied brutality. The issue here is less whether the two sides were as bad as each other, but whether they had more in common than was ever thought at the time..." [Cited by Kingston, 2007.] Mass killings The most infamous incident during this period was the Historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta reports that a " Additionally, captured allied service personnel were d in various incidents, including: *Laha massacre Note: this is not a complete list of massacres. There were many others. Human biological warfare experimentation Special Japanese military units conducted experiments on civilians and POWs in China. One of the most infamous was :"To determine the treatment of frostbite, prisoners were taken outside in freezing weather and left with exposed arms, periodically drenched with water until frozen solid. The arm was later amputated; the doctor would repeat the process on the victim’s upper arm to the shoulder. After both arms were gone, the doctors moved on to the legs until only a head and torso remained. The victim was then used for plague and pathogens experiments." [Byrd, Gregory Dean, " [http://etd-submit.etsu.edu/etd/theses/available/etd-0403105-134542/unrestricted/ByrdG042805f.pdf "General Ishii Shiro: His Legacy is that of a Genius and Madman] ", p. ? (PDF document)] According to GlobalSecurity.org, the experiments carried out by Unit 731 alone caused 3,000 deaths. [ [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/japan/bw.htm GlobalSecurity.org, 2005 "Biological Weapons Program"] . Downloaded November 26, 2006] Furthermore, "tens of thousands, and perhaps as many as 200,000, Chinese died of bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax and other diseases...", resulting from the use of biological warfare. One of the most notorious cases of human experimentation occurred in Japan itself. At least nine out of 12 crew members survived the crash of a In 2006, former IJN medical officer Use of chemical weapons "See also: According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, Emperor Hirohito authorized by specific orders (" In 2004, Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka discovered in the Australian National archives documents showing that cyanide gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prisoners in November 1944 on Kai islands (Indonesia). ["Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence", http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/nn20040727a9.html] Preventable famine Deaths caused by the diversion of resources to the Japanese military in occupied countries are also regarded as war crimes by many people. Millions of civilians in Torture of POWs Japanese imperial forces are also reported to have utilized widespread use of torture on prisoners, usually in an effort to gather military intelligence quickly. [cite book In the Philippines, a favorite technique of Japanese torturers was electrical shocks from an automobile battery, administered with clips attached to the nose and testicles of prisoners.Fact|date=January 2008 Cannibalism Many written reports and testimonies collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor In some cases, flesh was cut from living people: another Indian POW, " :"the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died." ["Ibid.", p.121. ] Perhaps the most senior officer convicted of cannibalism was Lt Gen. Forced labor The Japanese military's use of The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between four and 10 million " According to historian Akira Fujiwara, Emperor Comfort women The terms nihongo|"comfort women"|慰安婦|ianpu (or nihongo|"military comfort women"|従軍慰安婦|jongun-ianpu are In 1992, historian The controversy was re-ignited on The same day, veteran soldier On On A Dutch-Indonesian "comfort woman", Jan Ruff-O'Hearn (now resident in Australia), who gave evidence to the U.S. committee, said the Japanese Government had failed to take responsibility for its crimes, that it did not want to pay compensation to victims and that it wanted to rewrite history. [ [http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21327548-2,00.html Todd Cardy, 2007, "Japanese PM's denial upsets 'comfort woman'"] (News.com.au; March 5, 2007). Access date: March 7, 2007) ] Ruff-O'Hearn said that she had been raped "day and night" for three months by Japanese soldiers when she was 21. To this day, only one Japanese woman published her testimony. This was done in 1971, when a former "comfort woman" forced to work for showa soldiers in Taiwan, published her memoirs under the pseudonym of Suzuko Shirota. [ [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2007-07/06/content_911759.htm China Daily. Memoir of comfort woman tells of 'hell for women'] ] There are different theories on the breakdown of the comfort women's place of origin. While some sources claim that the majority of the women were from Japan, others, including Yoshimi, argue as many as 200,000 women, [http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women/index.htm & http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/10/15/congress_backs_off_of_wartime_japan_rebuke/] mostly from Korea and China, and some other countries such as the Philippines, Taiwan, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands, [ [http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200703/200703190023.html Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan] ] and Australia [ [http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/abe-ignores-evidence-say-australias-comfort-women/2007/03/02/1172338881441.html Abe ignores evidence, say Australia's 'comfort women'] ] were forced to engage in sexual activity. [Yoshimi, ibid., http://hnn.us/articles/printfriendly/9954.html, http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp77.html and http://hnn.us/articles/13533.html] [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=10155 ] On 26 June 2007, the U.S. House of representatives Foreign Affairs Committee passed a resolution asking that Japan "should acknowledge, apologize and accept historical responsibility in a clear and unequivocal manner for its military's coercion of women into sexual slavery during the war". ["U.S. Panel OKs sex slave resolution", http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070628a1.html] On 30 July 2007, the House of Representatives passed the resolution, while Looting Many historians state that the Japanese government and individual military personnel engaged in widespread Sterling and Peggy Seagrave, in their 2003 book "Gold Warriors: America’s secret recovery of Post-war events and reactions Soon after the war, the Allied powers indicted 25 individuals as The Tokyo Trials The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was formed to try accused people in Japan itself. High ranking officers who were tried included * Other trials (1942). The most prominent ethnic Korean convicted was Lieutenant General Official apologies The Japanese government considers that the legal and moral positions in regard to war crimes are separate. Therefore, while maintaining that Japan violated no international law or treaties, Japanese governments have officially recognised the suffering which the Japanese military caused, and numerous apologies have been issued by the Japanese government. For example, Prime Minister However, the official apologies are widely viewed as inadequate or only a symbolic exchange by many of the survivors of such crimes and/or the families of dead victims. On October 2006, while Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed an apology for the damage caused by its colonial rule and aggression, more than 80 Japanese lawmakers from his ruling party LDP paid visits to the Some in Japan have asserted that what is being demanded is that the Japanese Prime Minister and/or the Emperor perform " Citing Brandt's action as an example, John Borneman, associate professor of anthropology at Cornell, [www.cornell.edu, [http://cunews.cornell.edu/Chronicle/99/4.22.99/death-of-fathers.html] ] states that, "an apology represents a non-material or purely symbolic exchange whereby the wrongdoer voluntarily lowers his own status as a person." Borneman further states that once this type of apology is given, the injured party must forgive and seek reconciliation, or else the apology won't have any effect. The injured party may reject the apology for several reasons, one of which is to prevent reconciliation, because, "By keeping the memory of the wound alive, refusals prevent an affirmation of mutual humanity by instrumentalizing the power embedded in the status of a permanent victim." [Borneman, [http://condor.depaul.edu/~rrotenbe/aeer/v17n1/Borneman.pdf "Can Public Apologies Contribute to Peace?"] ] Therefore, some argue that a nation's reluctance to accept the conciliatory gestures that Japan has made may be because that nation doesn't think that Japan has "lowered" itself enough to provide a sincere apology. On the other hand, others state their belief that that particular nation is choosing to reject reconciliation in pursuit of permanent "victimhood" status as a way to try to assert power over Japan. [ [http://web.archive.org/web/20070628095340/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/Archive+Files/McCormack+MAS+MAY+2004.pdf McCormack, Gavan, "Difficult Neighbors: Japan, North Korea and the Quest for a New East Asian Order," "Modern Asia Series, Harvard University Asia Center"] , (May 3, 2004), Access date: December 8, 2007. ] Compensation There is a widespread perception that the Japanese government has not accepted the legal responsibility for compensation and, as a direct consequence of this denial, it has failed to compensate the individual victims of Japanese atrocities. In particular, a number of prominent The Japanese government officially accepted the requirement for monetary compensation to victims of war crimes, as specified by the Therefore, the Japanese government's position is that the proper avenues for further claims are the governments of the respective claimants. As a result, every individual compensation claim brought to Japanese court has failed. Such was the case in regard to a British POW who was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue the Japanese government for additional money for compensation. As a result, the UK Government later paid additional compensation to all British POWs. There were complaints in Japan that the international media simply stated that the former POW was demanding compensation and failed to clarify that he was seeking "further" compensation, in addition to that paid previously by the Japanese government. A small number of claims have also been brought in US courts, though these have also been rejected. During the treaty negotiation with South Korea, the Japanese government proposed that it pay monetary compensation to individual Korean victims, in line with the payments to western POWs. The Korean government instead insisted that Japan pay money collectively to the Korean government, and that is what occurred. The South Korean government then used the funds for economic development. The content of the negotiations was not released by the Korean government until 2004, although it was public knowledge in Japan. Due to the release of the information by the Korean government, a number of claimants have stepped forward and are attempting to sue the government for individual compensation of victims. There are those that insist that because the governments of China and The Japanese government, while admitting no legal responsibility for the so-called "comfort women", set up the The reality is that without a sincere and unequivocal apology from the government of Japan, the majority of surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds. [. Official homepage of US Congressman of 15th district California. http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ca15_honda/comfortwomentestimony.html, accessed March 8, 2007] Intermediate compensation The term "intermediate compensation" (or intermediary compensation) was applied to the removal and reallocation of Japanese industrial (particularly military-industrial) assets to Allied countries. It was conducted under the supervision of Allied occupation forces. This reallocation was referred to as "intermediate" because it did not amount to a final settlement by means of bilateral treaties, which settled all existing issues of compensation. By 1950, the assets reallocated amounted to 43,918 items of machinery, valued at ¥165,158,839 (in 1950 prices). The proportions in which the assets were distributed were: China, 54.1%; the Netherlands, 11.5%; the Philippines 19%, and; the United Kingdom, 15.4%. Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty Compensation from Japanese overseas assets Japanese overseas assets refers to all assets owned by the Japanese government, firms, organisation and private citizens, in colonised or occupied countries. In accordance with Clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all Japanese overseas assets, except those in China, which were dealt with under Clause 21. It is considered that Korea was also entitled to the rights provided by Clause 21. Compensation to Allied POWs Clause 16 of the San Francisco Treaty stated that Japan would transfer its assets and those of its citizens in countries which were at war with any of the Allied Powers or which were neutral, or equivalents, to the Red Cross, which would sell them and distribute the funds to former prisoners of war and their families. Accordingly, the Japanese government and private citizens paid out £4,500,000 to the Red Cross. Allied territories occupied by Japan Clause 14 of the treaty stated that Japan would enter into negotiations with Allied powers whose territories were occupied by Japan and suffered damage by Japanese forces, with a view to Japan compensating those countries for the damage. Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received compensation in 1956 and 1959 respectively. Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty. The last payment was made to the Philippines on Debate in Japan There is a widespread perception, outside Japan, that there is a reluctance inside Japan to discuss such events and/or admit that there were war crimes. However, the controversial events of the Japanese imperial era are openly debated in the media, with the various political parties and ideological groups taking quite different positions. What differentiates Japan from Germany and Austria is that in Japan, there is no restriction to the freedom of speech in regard to this matter, while in Germany, Austria and some other European countries, Until the 1970s, such debates were considered a fringe topic in the media. In the Japanese media, the opinions of the political centre and left tend to dominate the As the consensus of Japanese jurists is that Japanese forces did not technically commit violations of international law, many right wing elements in Japan have taken this to mean that war crimes trials were examples of By the early 21st century, the revived interest in Japan's imperial past had brought new interpretations from a group which has been labelled both "new right" and "new left". This group points out that many acts committed by Japanese forces, including the Nanjing Incident (they generally do not use the word "massacre"), were violations of the Japanese military code. It is suggested that had war crimes tribunals been conducted by the post-war Japanese government, in strict accordance with Japanese military law, many of those who were accused would still have been convicted and executed. Therefore, the moral and legal failures in question were the fault of the Japanese military and the government, for not executing their constitutionally-defined duty. The new right/new left also takes the view that the Allies committed no war crimes against Japan, because Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention, and as a victors, the Allies had every right to demand some form of retribution, to which Japan consented in various treaties. However, under the same logic, the new right/new left considers the killing of Chinese who were suspected of guerilla activity to be perfectly legal and valid, including some of those killed at Nanjing, for example. They also take the view that many Chinese civilian casualties resulted from the Similarly, they take the position that those who have attempted to sue the Japanese government for compensation have no legal and/or moral case. The new right/new left also takes a less sympathetic view of Korean claims of victimhood, because prior to annexation by Japan, Korea was a They also argue that, the "Kantōgun" (also known as the Kwantung Army) was at least partly culpable. Although the "Kantōgun" was nominally subordinate to the Japanese high command at the time, its leadership demonstrated significant self-determination, as shown by its involvement in the plot to assassinate Whether or not Hirohito himself bears any responsibility for such failures is a sticking point between the new right and new left. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Controversial reinterpretations outside Japan Some activists outside Japan are also attempting controversial reinterpretations of Japanese imperialism. For example, the views of a Later investigations As with investigations of Nazi war criminals, official investigations and inquiries are still ongoing. During the 1990s, the Non-government bodies and individuals have also undertaken their own investigations. For example, in 2005, a South Korean freelance journalist, Jung Soo-woong, located in Japan some descendants of people involved in the 1895 As these investigations continue more evidence is discovered each day. It has been claimed that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed the reports on Korean comfort women. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4749467.stm BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Korean WWII sex slaves fight on] ] [http://theseoultimes.com/ST/?url=/ST/db/read.php?idx=1846 The Seoul Times. "Ex-sex slave narrates: "Japan Boiled Comfort Woman to Make Soup". Japanese Army Ran "Comfort Woman System"] ] Some have cited Japanese inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield as evidence for this claim. For example, one of the names on the list was of a comfort woman who stated she was forced to be a prostitute by the Japanese. She was classified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Currently, the South Korean government is looking into the hundreds of other names on these lists. [ [http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501110028.html Digital Chosunilbo (English Edition) : Daily News in English About Korea. "Military Record of 'Comfort Woman' Unearthed"] ] Sensitive information regarding the Japanese occupation of Korea is often difficult to obtain. Many argue that this is due to the fact that the Government of Japan has gone out of its way to cover up many incidents that would otherwise lead to severe international criticism. [http://goldsea.com/Asiagate/609/17wartime.html] On their part, Koreans have often expressed their abhorrence of List of major incidents * Alexandra Hospital massacre ee also * References Notes Books * Barnaby, Wendy. "The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare", Frog Ltd, 1999. ISBN 1-883319-85-4 ISBN 0-7567-5698-7 ISBN 0-8264-1258-0 ISBN 0-8264-1415-X Audio/visual media *cite visual External links * [http://home.pacbell.net/fbaldie/Battling_Bastards_of_Bataan.html Battling Bastards of Bataan]
last=de Jong
first=Louis
authorlink= Loe de Jong
others=translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman
title=The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War
origyear=2002
series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206
publisher= [http://www.kitlv.nl KITLV Press]
location=Leiden, The Netherlands
isbn=90 6718 203 6
pages= 289 311 417]
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*Palawan massacre
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last=de Jong
first=Louis
authorlink= Loe de Jong
others=translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman
title=The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War
origyear=2002
series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206
publisher= [http://www.kitlv.nl KITLV Press]
location=Leiden, The Netherlands
isbn=90 6718 203 6
pages= 227-281
chapter= III Starvation in the Indies] (See, for example, the articles on the
last=de Jong
first=Louis
authorlink= Loe de Jong
others=translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman
title=The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War
origyear=2002
series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206
publisher= [http://www.kitlv.nl KITLV Press]
location=Leiden, The Netherlands
isbn=90 6718 203 6
pages= 167 170-173 181-184 196 204-225 309-314 323-325 337-338 341 343 345-346 380 407] Tortured prisoners were often later executed. A former Japanese Army officer who served in China, Uno Shintaro, stated::"The major means of getting intelligence was to extract information by interrogating prisoners. Torture was an unavoidable necessity. Murdering and burying them follows naturally. You do it so you won't be found out. I believed and acted this way because I was convinced of what I was doing. We carried out our duty as instructed by our masters. We did it for the sake of our country. From our filial obligation to our ancestors. On the battlefield, we never really considered the Chinese humans. When you're winning, the losers look really miserable. We concluded that the [Yamato people|Yamato [i.e. Japanese] race] was superior." [Haruko Taya Cook & Theodore F. Cook, "Japan at War" 1993 ISBN 1-56584-039-9, p. 153]
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* [http://www.sjwar.org "Biochemical Warfare - Unit 731". Alliance for Preserving the Truth of Sino-Japanese War.] No date.
* [http://www.warbirdforum.com/cannibal.htm "Cannibalism". Dan Ford, "Japan at War, 1931-1945"] September 2007.
* [http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/confess/index.html "Confessions of Japanese war criminals".] No date.
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n22/john04_.html Chalmers Johnson, "The Looting of Asia"] in "
* [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ "History of Japan's biological weapons program"]
* [http://www.systemclub.co.kr/ Ji Man-Won's website (in Korean)] Various dates.
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1338296,00.html Justin McCurry, "Japan's sins of the past"] in "
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~nanking/html/nanking_gallery.html "Nanking 1937"] ,
* [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/ Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG) ] U.S.
* [http://www.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,30200-13331097,00.html "No Riot Apology"]
* [http://www.skycitygallery.com/japan/japan.html "The Other Holocaust"] No date.
* [http://www.kimsoft.com/2002/jp-rape.htm "Rape of Queen MIN"] 2002
* [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM R.J. Rummel, "Statistics Of Japanese Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources" ]
* [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/28/1030508070534.html Shane Green. "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731" ] in "
* [http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/press/pm/murayama/9508.html "Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama"]
* [http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~warcrime/Japan/Yokohama/Reviews/PT-yokohama-index.htm "Synopses of Yokohama Trials of War Crimes against Japanese Defendants (UC Berkeley WCSC)"]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/ Steven Butler, "A half century of denial: the hidden truth about Japan's unit 731"] in "
*cite web
last = Borneman
first = John
year =
url = http://condor.depaul.edu/~rrotenbe/aeer/v17n1/Borneman.pdf
title = "Can Public Apologies Contribute to Peace? An Argument for Retribution"
format =
work = Cornell University
accessdate = 2006-07-29
* [http://hb5.seikyou.ne.jp/home/ykkwhr/yasunani.htm Fasces Japan labor camp of Nishimatsu安野発電所強制連行]