List of places in The Chronicles of Narnia

This is a list of fictional places in the Narnia universe that appear in the popular series of fantasy children's books by C. S. Lewis collectively known as The Chronicles of Narnia.

Contents: Top · 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Narnia Abbreviation Key

LWW:	The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe
PC:	Prince Caspian
VDT:	The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
SC:	The Silver Chair
HHB:	The Horse and His Boy
MN:	The Magician's Nephew
LB:	The Last Battle
TL:	Narnian timeline

A

• Alambil: is one of two celestial bodies (the other of which is Tarva), whose meeting in the night sky is shown to Caspian X shortly before he flees the castle of King Miraz. The book, Prince Caspian, offers two apparently contradictory descriptions of the nature of these celestial bodies, firstly they are described as being planets, then later they are described as being stars. The two heavenly bodies can be seen at the beginning of "The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian" film passing each other in the sky.
• Anvard: The moatless castle where King Lune of Archenland resides. It is made of red-brown stones and sits on a green lawn in front of a high woody ridge. In The Horse and His Boy, Prince Rabadash led a force of two hundred Calormene horsemen in a surprise attack against it, but was defeated by a relief army from Narnia led by King Edmund. (HHB),
• Archenland: This is a small forested and mountainous land directly to the south of Narnia, bordering on the great desert. It is inhabited by humans rather than talking animals but enjoys good terms with Narnia. The Calormenes group both countries together as "idle, disordered and unprofitable" and aspire to conquer them both (HHB).
• Aslan's Country: There is a way into the land of the Great Lion from every world; from Narnia it is found beyond the eastern end of the world. It was first seen at the end of The Voyage of the Dawn Treader and at the beginning and end of The Silver Chair. In The Last Battle, we learn that all the "real" countries of all the worlds jut out from the mountains of Aslan.
• Aslan's How: Also known as the Hill of the Stone Table, it is a high mound or cairn south of the Great River in Narnia next to the Great Woods. The Pevensie children first encounter Aslan in this place, but it is first called Aslan's How in Prince Caspian, when it is also called the Great Mound and is the site of Caspian's headquarters during the war to liberate Narnia. By that time, an earthen mound or tun had been built over the Stone Table, containing passages and chambers. The Stone Table itself is a sort of dolmen, used as a sacrificial site. (LWW, PC, HHB)
• Avra: The smallest of the Lone Islands, and residence of the Lord Bern in The Voyage of the Dawn Treader.
• Azim Balda: A city in Calormen. As the intersection of numerous roads across the empire, it is the center of the Tisroc's postal system. From the House of Imperial Posts messengers ride on swift horses to every corner of the Empire. The greater Tarkaans have the privilege of using this service.

B

• Beaversdam: A community named for the dam in the area built by Mr. Beaver who, along with Mrs. Beaver, helped to escort the four Pevensie children (Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy) to the Stone Table to meet Aslan. (LWW) The community was likely developed before the Telmarine conquest (unless the Telmarines named it after the "Old Narnian" story of the Pevensies', which is unlikely), but it still existed under the Telmarine rule, and seemed to have hosted a majority of the Telmarine-descent population. (PC)
• Fords of Beruna: The location of the shallows in the Great River at the town of Beruna in Narnia. They were a strategic crossing place for the people of the country. In The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, it was the site of the battle between the forces of Aslan and Jadis. In the time of Prince Caspian, the Telmarines who conquered Narnia centuries earlier had bridged the river at Beruna. The bridge was destroyed and the original crossing restored when Aslan returned to Narnia to aid Prince Caspian in his campaign to reclaim the throne from his uncle, the usurper Miraz.
• Beruna: One of four named towns in the country of Narnia. Beruna grew as a strategic location because of the fords on the Great River that were located there. When Narnia was conquered by the Telmarines, a town was built at the Fords of Beruna and a bridge over the river was constructed. In Prince Caspian, Susan Pevensie and Lucy Pevensie accompany Aslan to the bridge, and Bacchus destroys it at the request of the river-god ("Loose my chains").
• Bism: A country located in great caverns far beneath the Lady of the Green Kirtle's home in the Deep Realm. It is populated by gnome-like people known as Earthmen who in The Silver Chair have been enslaved by the Lady herself. Lewis describes it as a fantastic land where precious stones such as rubies and diamonds contain digestible juice that can be squeezed out and white-hot talking salamanders dance on flaming rivers of lava. The name Bism is almost certainly a shortened form of 'abysm', an old word for an abyss, or deep trench. (SC)
• Bramandin: A city or similar location in the world of Charn; named by Jadis as a place that had been destroyed or devastated (presumably by her). (MN)
• Brenn: One of the Seven Isles. It is home to the seaport of Redhaven. (VDT)
• Burnt Island: A flat grassy island just out of Dragon Island. Burnt Island is inhabited by rabbits and a couple of goats. Many suspect a village once thrived here, because of the ruins of huts, all burnt down, thus the name. The Coracle found on the Island was used by Reepicheep to sail to the End of the World. (VDT)

C

• Cair Paravel: The royal castle of Narnia. It was the location of the four thrones of High King Peter, Queen Susan, King Edmund and Queen Lucy. Cair Paravel was built some time before the Golden Age of Narnia. When the four Pevensie children entered Narnia and became Kings and Queens of the country after the defeat of the White Witch, Cair Paravel became the seat of the court of the High King Peter. At the time of Miraz the Usurper, Cair Paravel is a ruin on an island at the point where the Great River of Narnia flows into the Eastern Ocean. Caspian X either rebuilt the structure to its original splendour or he erected an entirely new castle (the books do not specify). In the time of King Tirian, Cair Paravel is surrounded by a city and is eventually sacked by the Tisroc of Calormen in The Last Battle.
• Calavar: A province in Calormen. In The Horse and His Boy, Aravis's father, Kidrash Tarkaan, is its governor.
• Calormen: A great empire of many provinces, lush vistas, vast trading networks, and magnificent palaces. Their society is strict, hierarchical, elegant. Lewis says it best: "the Calormenes have dark faces and long beards. They wear flowing robes and orange colored turbans, and they are a wise, wealthy, courteous, cruel, and ancient people."
• Caldron Pool: A churning and frothing pond on the western border of Narnia which forms the receiving pond for the Great Waterfall that falls down from the mountainous Western Wilds. The Great River flows out of it. It is said that Moonwood the hare could sit by it and hear what was said in whispers in Cair Paravel. In The Last Battle, Shift the ape and Puzzle the donkey live near it. The word "caldron" is an old spelling of "cauldron".
• Cambridge: Home of Eustace and his parents Harold and Alberta in The Voyage of the Dawn Treader.
• Cavern of Time: A cave in Underland. During Narnia's existence, an ancient being called Time slept endlessly there, to rise and destroy Narnia's sun at Aslan's command.
• Charn: The home world of The White Witch Jadis; also the name of that world's chief city. The world of Charn was completely destroyed by her, via an evil secret word, known as "The Deplorable Word", spoken by Jadis so that her sister would be killed and she would become ruler. Having destroyed all living things in the land of Charn, Jadis places herself in an enchanted sleep. She remains asleep until Digory awakens her in (MN).
• Chippingford: One of four towns named in the country of Narnia. It is mentioned briefly at the start of The Last Battle when Shift the Ape sends Puzzle the donkey there to buy oranges and bananas. It is a British English name, made up as if derived from the Anglo-Saxon Cēapungford which means "market ford". (LB)

D

• Dancing Lawn: is the official locale for outdoor feasts and councils in Narnia. Located south of Aslan's How, this circle of grass is ringed by elm trees and contains a water well. It chiefly figures in Prince Caspian, firstly as the place where the "Old Narnians" hold their council of war under the fugitive Prince, and later as the site of a number of celebrations centered around Aslan. (PC)
• Dark Island: An island in the Eastern Sea (interesting difference in British/American versions), it is said that one's dreams could come true on this island. According to Lord Rhoop though that this island doesn't make day dreams come true but REAL dreams that make one afraid to ever sleep again (i.e. nightmares).
• Deathwater Island: An island in the Eastern Sea. When Caspian X, King Edmund, Queen Lucy, their cousin Eustace and Reepicheep the Mouse landed on it in The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, they found a mountain lake that turned anything dipped into it into gold. However, when they saw Aslan and afterwards could not remember anything of their conversation, Reepicheep concluded that the island was cursed, giving it its name.
• Deep Realm: the land in the first layer of Underland. The Lady of the Green Kirtle held it under her control and enchantment until killed by Prince Rilian. Afterward, it was flooded by the sea, in accordance with her spells.
• Desert Oasis: An oasis located in the middle of the great desert between Calormen and the northern countries of Archenland and Narnia (HHB).
• Doorn: The largest of the Lone Islands. It is home to the town of Narrowhaven, which was the Governor's residence until this position was disestablished in the Voyage of the Dawn Treader.
• Dragon Island: An island in the Eastern Sea, east of the Lone Islands. It is inhabited only by wild goats and wild pigs. It is here in The Voyage of the Dawn Treader that Eustace Scrubb was turned into a dragon and helped to be a different boy by Aslan.
• Duffer Isle: An island in the Eastern Sea; home of the Duffers (later known as the Dufflepuds) and Coriakin the Magician.

E

• Ettinsmoor: Ettinsmoor is the long, lonely land north of the River Shribble. It is mainly populated by giants. Long gullies, sometimes as much as fifty feet deep, crisscross its surface. The giants that do live there don't seem to have any sort of organization amongst themselves. It is generally considered a dangerous and wild place. There are a few scattered Talking Beasts there. There are also various scattered ruins of old, old times, and old, slippery bridges. The word 'Ettin' comes from an old English word (Eoten) for giant. In J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, there is a similarly named area called the Ettenmoors.(SC)
• Experiment House: It is the unorthodox school attended by Jill Pole and Eustace Scrubb in The Silver Chair. Created by the author to express his disdain with modern educational methods, it is co-educational where children are allowed to do as they please and can feel free bully other children. It is run by a female Head who devotes her attention more to bullies, whom she sees as interesting psychological cases who she does not punish, than well-behaved children. Students at Experiment House do not receive a religious education, and Lewis briefly and disdainfully notes the school's absence of corporal punishment during The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. In Narnia, Jill and Eustace do not know what Aslan means by Son of Adam or Daughter of Eve because they have never heard of Adam or Eve. At the end of The Silver Chair, Eustace, Jill, Caspian and Aslan himself team up together to defeat the bullies and set things right. Thanks to their actions, the bullies' rule is overthrown as well as that of the incompetent Head and the school becomes a much better place. (SC) Experiment House satirizes progressive educational institutions such as Summerhill School.

F

• Felimath: One of the principal islands of the Lone Islands. Caspian and his comrades were captured here by slavers, and the island was used to conceal the approach of his imaginary fleet. Voyage of the Dawn Treader
• Felinda: A city or similar location in the world of Charn; named by Jadis as a place that had been destroyed or devastated (presumably by her). (MN)
• Finchley: The area of London where Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy are from. There is no mention of this in the books, but Susan mentions to the Beavers in the 2005 film that they are from Finchley.
• Flaming Mountain of Lagour: A mountain, presumably a volcano, referred to by Emeth as being fearsome, but not as much as Aslan. It is probably located in Calormen. (LB)

G

• Galma: Galma is the island nearest of Narnia in the Eastern Ocean. They enjoy jousts and the like, there, and have a chivalrous court. Galmians excel most of all at navigation on the high seas.
• Glasswater Creek: It is a small estuary south of Cair Paravel whose head is near Aslan's How. Trumpkin the dwarf and the Pevensie children row up this inlet to reach Prince Caspian X. In British English, a creek can refer to a small inlet deeper than a cove. This is often confusing to someone who is familiar with the American definition of a creek as a small stream.
• Gnome City: A city in Underland.
• Great Desert: It lies between Calormen and the northern countries of Archenland and Narnia. It can be crossed on horseback in about a night and a day. The desert provides some protection from Calormen invasion since the springs at the great oasis would not be sufficient to enable an army of any size to cross it. There is however a secret and well watered valley leading into Archenland. It is described as an ocean of sand by Narnians and has an oasis in between. It can be bypassed by sea as the Calormenes do in The Last Battle. The Hermit of the Southern March lives North of it. Beyond it is Anvard and Narnia.(HHB)(LB).
• Great Waterfall: It is a major waterfall in Narnia. It is where Puzzle and Shift live near and find the lion's skin (LB).
• Great Woods: It is a major forest in Narnia.
• Great River of Narnia: It runs through the centre of Narnia, all the way from the wilderness in the west, beyond the lamppost, to the sea on the east, where the great castle of Cair Paravel lies at its mouth. Along the river lie some of Narnia's most famous landmarks; amongst which are Beaversdam and Beruna. Its crossings lie at Beaversdam, in the form of the dam, and at Beruna where it is shallow enough to wade through. During the reign of Miraz there was also a bridge at Beruna, but this was destroyed when Miraz was defeated by Prince Caspian.
• Green Hill: It is a hill in Narnia.

H

• Harfang: Harfang is the great city of the far northern giants (the civilized ones). Although, of course, they're not quite so civil to everyone. They have a large castle and a king and queen and enjoy going out to hunt. They also enjoy feasts, for the which one of their chief delicacies is human flesh, cooked in a variety of ways. Eustace Scrubb, Jill Pole, and Puddleglum arrive at the castle on the recommendation of the Lady of the Green Kirtle in time for the Autumn Feast, unaware that they are to be the feast. In origin, the word Harfang means the male of the snowy owl. (SC)
• House of Professor Kirke: A house in England. The location of the wardrobe that allowed people to travel to Narnia. (LWW)

I

• Ilkeen: A lake in Calormen. On it is one of the palaces of Ahoshta Tarkaan.
• Island of Ramandu: An island in the Eastern Sea. Though some call it the World's End, it is really only the beginning of the end. Home of the star Ramandu.

K

• Ketterleys' Home: The home of Uncle Andrew Ketterley and his sister Letitia in London, England. (MN)

L

• Lantern Waste: It is in northwestern Narnia, west of The Wild Lands of The North. Here Jadis, Polly Plummer, Digory Kirke, Uncle Andrew, Frank and his horse, Strawberry, witnessed the creation of Narnia. During the creation Jadis threw a piece of a London lamppost at Aslan's head and when it fell to the ground it grew into a new lamppost. Centuries later Lucy Pevensie met Mr Tumnus near the Lamppost, which is now a relic that no one knows much about, although it still casts light. In Prince Caspian, we learn that Edmund Pevensie is "Duke of the Lantern Waste". Lantern Waste remains a prominent location throughout the series of novels, and it is here that the last battle is fought for Narnia. (MN, LWW, LB)
• Last Sea, the: A stretch of water before Aslan’s country. While sailing here, Lucy spots a clan of sea people going hunting.
• London: It is the capital of the United Kingdom and the home of the Pevensie family. It is from London that the four children evacuate during The Blitz of World War II and have the adventure in LWW. London is also the home of Polly Plummer and the Kirke and Ketterly families.
• Lone Islands: The Lone Islands are the most populous and busiest of the islands in the Eastern Ocean. There are three of them: Doorn, Avra, and Felimath. Felimath is a quiet, rural island of pastures, mostly used for grazing sheep. Avra is the home of Bernstead, Duke Bern's estate (as well as others). It is a slightly more mountainous island, famous for its vast vineyards. Doorn is the largest island and also the most important, for its main town of Narrowhaven. Narrowhaven is the largest island nexus of trade in the whole of the Ocean. Merchants and goods pass through its harbor and its streets from all the mainland kingdoms and all the islands. There is a unique intersection there between Narnians, Calormenes, and Islanders. The Lone Islands were restored to Narnian rule by King Caspian X himself on his voyage to the end of the world. (They had been ruled by the King of Narnia, under the title Emperor of the Lone Islands, in the time of the High King.) (PC). Prior to being reclaimed by Caspian, they were overseen by Gumpas, and were a great center of the slave trade. Following Caspian X's visit, the Lone Islands were ruled for him by Duke Bern.

M

• Mezreel: A location in Calormen, contains the Valley of the Thousand Perfumes. The name is intended to have an "Oriental" sound, like the Biblical Valley of Jezreel.^{[citation needed]}
• Miraz's Castle: A castle that was said to be somewhere near the castle where the White Witch used to live. This is where Caspian X lived in his youth. According to Cornelius, the castle had been built by Caspian's great-great-grandfather who was a Telmarine and may have been a Caspian. After Caspian ascends to the throne he uses Cair Paravel as his castle. It is never stated what Caspian does with Miraz's castle. (PC)
• Mount Pire (also called Olvin): A double-peaked mountain on the border between Archenland and Calormen. Once it was a two-headed giant defeated by the King of Archenland 407 years after the creation of Narnia. In The Horse and His Boy Shasta overhears a Raven tell King Edmund and Queen Susan of a secret way into Archenland through a stone valley which can only be reached by starting from the Tombs of the Ancient Kings and riding so the cleft of Mt. Pire is always ahead of him. (HHB)
• Muil: One of the Seven Isles. (VDT)

N

• Narnia: is a country of rolling hills rising into low mountains to the south, and is predominantly forested except for marshlands in the north. The country is bordered on the east by the Eastern Sea, on the west by a great mountain range, on the north by the River Shribble, and on the south by a continental divide. The economic heart of the country is the Great River of Narnia, which enters the country from the northwest on an east-southeasterly course to the Eastern Sea. The seat of government is Cair Paravel, at the mouth of the Great River. Other communities along the river include (from east to west) Beruna, Beaversdam, and Chippingford. The kingdom of Narnia serves as the main location for approximately half of the stories, and Voyage of the Dawn Treader takes place on a Narnian ship.

O

• Omaru: Created for the LWW film, this is Aslan's camp.

P

• Pale Beaches: A location in Underland (SC)
• Pugrahan Salt Mines: A location in Calormen (LB)

R

• Redhaven: Chief city and primary port of the Seven Isles located on the island of Brenn.
• River Rush: A river in Narnia
• River Shribble: First mentioned in the fourth book in the series The Silver Chair, the River Shribble is described as forming the northern border of Narnia from the western mountains to the Great Ocean. It also feeds that regions great expanses of marshes and moors on which live the country's main population of Marshwiggles, humanoid creatures resembling men in all appearances except for their frog-like hands and feet. (SC)
• River Winding Arrow: border of Archenland and Calormen
• Ruined City of the Giants: A location south of Harfang. (SC)

S

• Seven Isles: They are islands to the east and slightly to the north of Narnia in the Eastern Sea. Like the Lone Islands and Galma, the Seven Isles were subject to the Crown of Narnia. The chief city in the Seven Isles was the port of Redhaven.
• Shallow Lands: A location in Underland which caverns near the surface.
• Shuddering Wood: A location in Narnia
• Sorlois: A city or similar location in the world of Charn; named by Jadis as a place that had been destroyed or devastated (presumably by her). The name is probably taken from the Arthurian legends.
• Southern Marche: A location in the southern part of Archenland not far from the Great Desert.
• Spare oom: Mispronunciation of "spare room" by the Faun Tumnus, where Lucy explains she came from. It is reached from the Lantern Wastes by way of the wardrobe. (LWW)
• Stable Hill: A location in Narnia. This is where the Last Battle of the Last King of Narnia is fought
• Stone Table: See: Aslan's How
• Stormness Head: It is the highest peak in southern mountains of Narnia, just east of the main pass to Archenland. In The Horse and His Boy King Lune defeats Prince Rabadash here 1014 years after the creation of Narnia. (HHB)
• Sunless Sea: It is a large subterranean lake depicted in The Silver Chair. It lies under the land of Narnia and the capital of Underland, a great seaport, lies on its pale beaches. All the outlets to the Overworld lie on the other side of the Sunless Sea except for the secret tunnel dug by the Earthmen in preparation for an invasion of Narnia. (SC)

T

• Tashbaan: The capital city of Calormen, a great empire south of the land of Narnia. Tashbaan is a great city built on an island in the delta of a great river in the northern part of Calormen, just two days' ride south of Archenland (the small country between Narnia and Calormen) but several weeks ride from the southern parts of Calormen. It is described as one of the wonders of the world. The city is a hot and crowded place, though with fine streets, magnificent palaces, and gardens. It is built on a natural slope, rising to the palace of the Tisroc and the great Temple of Tash at the pinnacle of the hill. The palace of the Tisroc is described as magnificent beyond description and opens onto gardens that run right down to the river wall. Tashbaan is surrounded by a strong wall that rises out of the water and is reached by long bridges from both banks, providing the only place where crossing the great river of Calormen is possible for many miles. The banks of the river are lined with gardens and country houses. (HHB)
• Teebeth: in Calormen (HHB)
• Tehishbaan: A city in Calormen. In The Last Battle, the birthplace of Emeth. (HHB)
• Telmar: Located to the west of Narnia, Telmar was a land colonized first by refugee pirates from our world; where it is in relation to the Western Waste to Narnia's immediate west is unclear, however. The Telmarines, forgetting their dubious origins, subsequently became a great and powerful nation. They invaded Narnia at a time of unrest and conquered it, driving the "old Narnians" into hiding (Prince Caspian).
• Terebinthia: One of Narnia's twelve Islands and is the second closest island to the mainland (the first being Galma). Most of the islands off the coast of Narnia are reclaimed by the Narnian crown during the reign of Caspian X. Very little is known of Terebinthia. Its name means "land of the turpentine-trees". Terebinths or turpentine-trees resemble oaks. (Not to be confused with Terabithia.)
• Tisroc's Palace: A palace in Tashbaan.

U

• Underland: It is the name for all the land under the fictional world of Narnia. The top is called the Marches, the Deep Realm is much further underground, and Bism is another six thousand feet below them. Underland is inhabited by the Earthmen who are from Bism, a land of molten rocks. They call the Marches and the Deep Realm the "Shallow Lands". All outlets from Underland to the Overworld lie across the Sunless Sea (except for the tunnel dug by the Earthmen under the spell of the Lady of the Green Kirtle). (SC)

W

• War Drobe: It was thought by Mr. Tumnus in C. S. Lewis' novel The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe to be a city in the country of "Spare oom" or "spare room", Lucy Pevensie's "home country". In reality it is the apple-wood wardrobe of Professor Digory Kirke, containing the portal to Narnia for the Pevensie children. Passing through the wardrobe provides passage between the United Kingdom and the Lantern Waste of Narnia. There is some indication that the wardrobe may have been constructed from the wood of an apple tree, which was planted over the burial site of the magic rings used to access the Wood Between the Worlds, using the core of a magic apple brought from Narnia. (The Magician's Nephew, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe) Paul F. Ford calls it a clever way for Lewis to show how words are really symbols. In another instance, the animals in The Magician's Nephew mishear Aslan's statement that an evil has entered Narnia, thinking that he said "A Neevil".^[1][2]
• Western Marches: A location in Narnia
• Western Wild : A location in Narnia. A great western land of mountains and pine forests, it is here that Diggory and Polly find the silver apple the Great Tree grows from at a garden at the Great River's source. It is also here that Queen Jadis ate one of the magic apples in vain and became the White Witch.
• White Witch's Castle: A castle in Narnia. A palace made of stone, though covered entirely of ice, which the White Witch ruled from. The statues of her victims decorated the halls.
• Wild lands of the North: the border of this land starts at the River Shribble, and the frist land north of this river is Ettinsmoor. under Ettinsmoor is a land called "Underland". Farther north is the city of Harfang and the Ruined City of the Giants. the Ruined City of the Giants is Where High King Peter and his Narnian army went to fight the northern giants during the book The Horse and His Boy. (SC)
• Wood between the Worlds: It is first so named by Polly Plummer, who arrives by trickery of Digory's Uncle Andrew and is later found by Digory. The salient feature of the wood, other than the trees, is the presence of many pools of water. Initially, the pools appear to be just shallow puddles. However, when another magic ring is worn, the pool of water transports the wearer to a different world. The wood is thus implied to be a place linking all worlds, including Narnia, Charn, and our own Earth. The sense of slothfulness that grips all visitors to the Wood is thought to be a result of the Wood's being a limbo-like linking room, not really a place at all. (MN)
• World's End: Flat plain with green grass that intersects with the sky/wall at the end of the world.

Z

• Zalindreh: A location in Calormen, where Bree and his master Anradin distinguished themselves in battle.

References

1. ^ Ford, Paul F. Companion to Narnia, Harper and Row, San Francisco, 1980.
2. ^ Lewis, C.S. Bluspels and Flalansferes: A Semantic Nightmare, Selected Literary Essays, Cambridge University Press, London, 1969. (Secondary source)

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