German phonology

German phonology describes the phonology of Standard German.

Since German is a pluricentric language, there are a number of different pronunciations of standard German which however agree in most respects.

Vowels

* In the northern varieties, IPA| [ʔ] occurs before word stems with initial vowel. It is not considered a phoneme, but an optional boundary mark of word stems.
* IPA| [d͡ʒ] and IPA| [ʒ] occur only in words of foreign origin. In certain varieties, they are replaced by IPA| [t͡ʃ] and IPA| [ʃ] altogether.
* IPA| [ʋ] is occasionally considered to be an allophone of [v] , especially in Southern varieties of German.
* IPA| [ç] and IPA| [x] are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels. For a more detailed analysis see below at "ich-Laut" and "ach-Laut". According to some analysis, IPA| [χ] is an allophone of IPA| [x] after IPA|/a aː/ and according to some also after IPA|/ʊ ɔ a͡ʊ/.
* IPA| [r] , IPA| [ʁ] and IPA| [ʀ] are in free variation with one another. IPA| [r] is used mainly in Southern varieties. In the syllable coda, the allophone IPA| [ɐ] is used in many varieties, except in the South-West.
* Some phonologists deny the phoneme IPA|/ŋ/ and use IPA|/nɡ/ instead, and IPA|/nk/ instead of IPA|/ŋk/. The phoneme sequence IPA|/nɡ/ is realized as IPA| [ŋɡ] when IPA|/ɡ/ can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed IPA|/ə/, IPA|/ɪ/, or IPA|/ʊ/. It becomes IPA| [ŋ] otherwise. Example:
#*"diphthong" IPA|/dɪftɔnɡ/ [dɪftɔŋ] : "diphthongieren" IPA|/dɪftɔnɡirən/ [ˌdɪftɔŋˈɡiːɐn]
#*"Englisch" IPA|/ɛnɡlɪʃ/ [ɛŋlɪʃ] : "Anglo" IPA|/anɡlo/ [aŋɡlo]
#*"Ganges" IPA|/ɡanɡəs/ [ɡaŋəs] ~ IPA|/ɡanɡɛs/ [ɡaŋɡɛs]

The voiceless stops IPA|/p/, IPA|/t/, IPA|/k/ are aspirated except when preceded by a sibilant. The obstruents IPA|/b d ɡ z ʒ/ are voiceless IPA| [b̥ d̥ ɡ̊ z̥ ʒ̊] in the Southern varieties.

"Ich-Laut" and "ach-Laut"

The term ich-Laut refers to the voiceless palatal fricative IPA| [ç] , the term ach-Laut to the voiceless velar fricative IPA| [x] . In German, these two sounds are allophones occurring in complementary distribution. The allophone IPA| [x] occurs after back vowels and IPA|/a aː/ (for instance in "Buch" IPA| [buːx] ‘book’), the allophone IPA| [ç] after front vowels (for instance in "ich" IPA| [ɪç] ‘I’) and consonants (for instance in "Furcht" IPA| [fʊrçt] ‘fear’) (Kohler 1977, 1990; Wiese 1996: 210).

In loanwords, pronunciation of potential fricatives in onsets of stressed syllables vary: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is IPA| [ç] , while in Southern varieties, it is IPA| [kʰ] , and in Western varieties, it is IPA| [ʃ] (for instance in "China": IPA| [ˈçiːna] vs. IPA| [ˈkʰiːna] vs. IPA| [ˈʃiːna] ).

The diminutive suffix "-chen" is always pronounced with an "ich-Laut" IPA| [-çən] .Fact|date=September 2008 Usually, this ending triggers umlaut (compare for instance "Hund" 'dog' to "Hündchen" ‘little dog’), so theoretically, it could only occur after front vowels. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word "Frauchen" IPA| [ˈfra͡ʊçən] ‘female dog master’ (a diminutive of "Frau" ‘woman’), so that a back vowel is followed by IPA| [ç] , even though normally it would be followed by a IPA| [x] , as in "rauchen" IPA| [ˈraʊxən] ‘to smoke’. There is even a near minimal pair for IPA| [ç] and IPA| [x] due to this effect: IPA| [kuːçən] "Kuhchen" ‘little cow’ vs. IPA| [kuːxən] "Kuchen" ‘cake’. This exception to the allophonic distribution is considered by some to be an effect of the morphemic boundary. However, many phoneticiansWho|date=September 2008 believe that this is an example of "phonemicization", where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate phonemes.

The allophonic distribution of IPA| [ç] after front vowels and IPA| [x] after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as Scots, in the pronunciation of "light". However, it is by no means inevitable: Dutch, Yiddish, and many Southern German dialects retain IPA| [x] in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that Old High German "ih", the ancestor of modern "ich", was pronounced with IPA| [x] rather than IPA| [ç] . And while it is impossible to know for certain whether Old English words such as "niht" (modern "night") were pronounced with IPA| [x] or IPA| [ç] , IPA| [ç] is likely (see Old English phonology#Consonant allophones).

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of IPA| [ç] and IPA| [x] in modern Standard German is better described as backing of IPA|/ç/ after a back vowel, rather than fronting of IPA|/x/ after a front vowel,Fact|date=September 2008 because IPA| [ç] is used in onsets ("Chemie" IPA| [çemiː] ) and after consonants ("Molch" IPA| [mɔlç] ), and is thus considered the basic sound.Fact|date=September 2008

According to certain analysesWho|date=September 2008, the German "ach-Laut" is further differentiated into two allophones, IPA| [x] and IPA| [χ] . Some say that IPA| [x] occurs after IPA|/uː oː/ (for instance in "Buch" IPA| [buːx] ‘book’) and IPA| [χ] after IPA|/ʊ ɔ a aː a͡ʊ/ (for instance in "Bach" IPA| [baχ] ‘brook’), others say that IPA| [x] occurs after IPA|/uː oː ʊ ɔ a͡ʊ/ and IPA| [χ] after IPA|/a aː/.

The suffix -ig is always pronouced IPA| [ɪç] in the Standard Language, also in compound words: wichtig IPA| [ˈvɪçtɪç] (important), Wichtigkeit IPA| [ˈvɪçtɪçka͡ɪt] (importance). The speakers of southern dialects usually pronounce IPA| [ɪk] , even when speaking Standard German.

Fortis-lenis pairs

Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same place of articulation and in the same manner of articulation, namely the pairs IPA|/p-b/, IPA|/t-d/, IPA|/k-g/, IPA|/s-z/, /IPA|ʃ-ʒ/. These pairs are often called fortis-lenis pairs, since describing them as voiced/voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications, IPA|/t͡ʃ-d͡ʒ, f-v/ are also considered fortis-lenis pairs.

The fortis plosives IPA|/p, t, k/ are aspirated in most varieties (exceptions include Bavarian-Austrian varieties). The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a stressed syllable (such as Taler IPA| [tʰaːlər] ), weaker in the onset of an unstressed syllable (such as Vater IPA| [faːtʰər] ), and weakest in the syllable coda (such as in Saat IPA| [zaːtʰ] ).

The lenis consonants IPA|/b, d, ɡ, z, ʒ/ are voiceless in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as IPA| [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, z̥, ʒ̊] . The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that one of these characteristics implies the other.

In most varieties of German, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the syllable coda, due to terminal devoicing (Auslautverhärtung). A few southern varieties of German, such as Swiss German, present an exception to this.

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is also neutralized in the syllable onset; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases.

The pair IPA|/f-v/ is not considered a fortis-lenis pair, but a simple voiceless-voiced pair, as IPA|/v/ remains voiced in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that devoice the lenes. Generally, the southern IPA|/v/ is realized as the voiced approximant IPA| [ʋ] . However there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis IPA|/f/ (such as in sträflich IPA| [ˈʃtrɛːflɪç] from Middle High German stræflich) and a lenis IPA|/f/ (IPA| [v̥] , such as in höflich IPA| [ˈhøːv̥lɪç] from Middle High German hovelîch); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis IPA|/s/ (IPA| [s] ) and lenis IPA| [z̥] .

tress

Stress in German usually falls on the first syllable, with the following exceptions:
* Many loanwords, especially proper names, keep their original stress.
* Verbs of the "-ieren" group ("studieren", "kapitulieren", "stolzieren", etc.) receive stress on their penultimate syllable.
* Compound adverbs, with her, hin, da, or wo as their first syllable part, receive stress on their second syllable.Moreover, German makes a distinction in stress between separable prefixes (stress on prefix) and inseparable prefixes (stress on root) in verbs and words derived from such verbs. Therefore:
* Words beginning with be-, ge-, er-, ver-, zer-, ent-, emp- and a few others receive stress on the second syllable.
* Words beginning with ab-, auf-, ein-, vor-, and most other prepositional adverbs receive stress on their first syllable.
* Some prefixes, notably über-, unter-, and um-, can function as separable or inseparable prefixes, and are stressed and unstressed accordingly.
* Rarely, two homographs with such prefixes are formed. They are not strictly homophones. Consider the word, "umschreiben". As "um•schreiben" (separable prefix), it means "to rewrite", and is pronounced IPA| [ˈʊmʃʀaɪbən] , and its associated noun, "die Umschreibung" also receives stress on the first syllable. On the other hand, "umschreiben" (inseparable prefix) is pronounced IPA| [ʊmˈʃʀaɪbən] . This word means "to circumscribe", and its associated noun, "die Umschreibung" ("circumscription", "circumlocution") also receives stress on the second syllable. Another example is the word "umfahren". With stress on the root (IPA| [ʊmˈfaːʀən] ) it means "to drive around (an obstacle in the street)", and with stress on the prefix (IPA| [ˈʊmfaːʀən] ) it means "to drive over / to collide with (an object on the street)".

Historical sound changes

The Middle High German vowel pairs IPA| [ei] / [iː] and IPA| [ou] / [uː] have merged to IPA| [ai] and IPA| [au] respectively in modern standard German, although many dialects retain the distinction. For example, while "heiß" 'hot' (MHG "heiz") and "Eis" 'ice' (MHG "îs") rhyme in the standard language, they do not in the Austro-Bavarian dialects ("hoaß"/"äis") and in the Alemannic German dialects ("heiß"/"iis"), nor in the Yiddish language ("heys"/"ayz"), also a descendant of Middle High German.

Phonemic mergers

A merger found mostly in Northern accents of German is that of IPA|/ɛː/ (spelled "ä, äh") with IPA|/eː/ (spelled "e", "ee", or "eh"). Some speakers merge the two everywhere, some distinguish them everywhere, others keep IPA|/ɛː/ distinct only in conditional forms of strong verbs (for example they distinguish "ich gäbe" 'I would give' vs. "ich gebe" 'I give', but not "Bären" 'bears' vs. "Beeren" 'berries').

Another common merger is that of IPA|/ɡ/ at the end of a syllable with IPA|/ç/ or respectively IPA|/x/, for instance "Krieg" IPA| [ˈkʁiːç] , but "Kriege" IPA| [ˈkʁiːgə] . This pronunciation is frequent all over Central and Northern Germany. However, it is considered slightly informal or colloquial. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending "-ig", (which corresponds to English "-y",) this pronunciation is prescribed by the Siebs standard, for instance "wichtig" IPA| [ˈvɪçtɪç] . The merger occurs neither in Austro-Bavarian German and Alemannic German nor in the corresponding varieties of standard German.

The merger of IPA|/g/ and IPA|/ç/ is the basis of an anti-socialist joke, that became common in the former GDR. The socialist slogan "Der Sozialismus siegt! (Socialism is victorious!)", in consideration of the merger, may turn into "Der Sozialismus siecht! (Socialism is moribund!)". (Compare "siegen" "to win, to be victorious" and "siechen" "to be critically ill".)

References

*Duden. "Aussprachewörterbuch". Dudenverlag: Mannheim/Leipzig/Wien/Zürich (2005). ISBN 3-411-04064-5
*Kohler, Klaus J. (1977). "Einführung in die Phonetik des Deutschen". Berlin: E. Schmidt.
*Kohler, Klaus J. (1990). German. "Journal of the International Phonetic Association" 20:48–50.
*Siebs, Theodor. (1898). "Deutsche Bühnensprache". Cologne: Ahn.
*Wiese, Richard. (1996). "The Phonology of German". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-824040-6.

ee also

*German orthography

External links

* [http://pronounce-german.com Pronounce-German.com: provides free pronunciation of German words by a native speaker] , tens of thousands included (Seems to still be in beta)
* [http://www.nordicnames.de/Aussprache.html Listen to the pronunciation of German first names]
* [http://www.zas.gwz-berlin.de/papers/zaspil/articles/zp41/all_diss.pdf Articulatory correlates of the voicing contrast in alveolar obstruent production in German]