Crucifixion (from Latin "crucifixio", noun of process "crucifixio", from perfect passive participle "crucifixus", fixed to a cross, from prefix "cruci-", cross, + verb "ficere", fix or do, variant form of "facere", do or make ) [ [http://www.allwords.com/word-crucifixion.html AllWords.com] ] is an ancient method of execution, whereby the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross (of various shapes) and left to hang until dead.
It was in use particularly among the Persians, Seleucids, Carthaginians, and Romans from about the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD, when in the year 337 Emperor Constantine I abolished it in his empire, out of veneration for Jesus Christ, the most famous victim of crucifixion. [ [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9028045 Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: crucifixion] ] [ [http://www.mb-soft.com/believe/text/crucifix.htm Crucifixion] ] It has sometimes been used even in modern times.
A crucifix, (from Latin "crucifixus" or "cruci fixus", past participle passive of "crucifigere" or "cruci figere", "crucify", "fix to a cross"), [ [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=crucify Online Etymology Dictionary] ] an image of Christ crucified on a cross, is for Catholic Christians the main symbol of their religion, but most Protestant Christians prefer to use a cross without the figure (the "corpus" - Latin for "body") of Christ.
Details of crucifixion
Crucifixion was almost never performed for ritual or symbolic reasons outside of Christianity, but usually to provide a death that was particularly painful (hence the term "excruciating", literally "out of crucifying"), gruesome (hence dissuading against the crimes punishable by it) and public (hence the metaphorical expression "to nail to the cross"), using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period.
The Greek and Latin words corresponding to "crucifixion" applied to many different forms of painful execution, from impaling on a stake to affixing to a tree, to an upright pole (what some call a "crux simplex") or to a combination of an upright (in Latin, "stipes") and a crossbeam (in Latin, "patibulum"). [Seneca the Younger wrote: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet" ( [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sen/sen.consolatione2.shtml Dialogue "To Marcia on Consolation", 6.20.3] ).]
If a crossbeam was used, the condemned man was forced to carry it on his shoulders, which could have been torn open by flagellation, to the place of execution. A whole cross would weigh well over 300 pounds (135 kilograms), but the crossbeam would weigh only 75-125 pounds (35-60 kilograms). [ [http://www.orlutheran.com/html/crucify.html Crucifixion in the Ancient World] ] The Roman historian Tacitus records that the city of Rome had a specific place for carrying out executions, situated outside the Esquiline Gate, [ [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/tacitus/tac.ann2.shtml#32 Annales 2:32.2] ] and had a specific area reserved for the execution of slaves by crucifixion. [ [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/tacitus/tac.ann15.shtml#60 Annales 15:60.1] ] Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in that place, and the crossbeam, with the condemned man perhaps already nailed to it, would then be attached to the post.
The person executed may sometimes have been attached to the cross by ropes, but nails are mentioned in a passage of Josephus, where he states that, at the Siege of Jerusalem (70), "the soldiers out of rage and hatred, "nailed" those they caught, one after one way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest", [Jewish War V.II] and in ] The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four carpal bones. The Gospel word "] Once deprived of support and unable to lift himself, the condemned would die within a few minutes.
Experiments by Frederick Zugibe have revealed that, when suspended with arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical, test subjects had no difficulty breathing, only rapidly-increasing discomfort and pain. This would correspond to the Roman use of crucifixion as a prolonged, agonizing, humiliating death. Zugibe claims that the breaking of the crucified condemned's legs to hasten death, as mentioned in , have interpreted an allusion to crucifixion in Deuteronomy , however, a 2002 programme for Channel 4's "Secret History" identified the soldier as a Harry Band, which has given arguable credibility to the story. [cite episode
title = The Crucified Soldier
episodelink = The Crucified Soldier
series = Secret History
serieslink = Secret History (TV documentary series)
network = Channel 4
airdate = 2002-07-04
season = 9
number = 5]
Other
In 2002, a 23 year old man was found crucified to a fence in Northern Ireland. Despite the severity of his wounds he survived the attack. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Northern_Ireland/Story/0,,825136,00.html the Guardian]
Crucifixion as a devotional practice
, in which a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross. Some very devout Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday, to imitate the suffering of Jesus Christ. A notable example is the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of Mexico City, since 1833. [ [http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=23257 RELIGION-MEXICO: The Passion According to Iztapalapa ] ]
Devotional crucifixions are also common in the Philippines, even driving nails through the hands. One man named Rolando del Campo vowed to be crucified every Good Friday for 15 years if God would carry his wife through a difficult childbirth. (There is a video of the crucifixion [http://religiousfreaks.com/2006/04/12/man-crucifies-himself-every-good-friday/ here] .) In San Pedro Cutud, devotee Ruben Enaje has been crucified 21 times, as of 2007, during Passion Week celebrations. [http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/international/international-philippines-crucifixions.html] [ [http://cnn.netscape.cnn.com/story.jsp?floc=FF-APO-1104&idq=/ff/story/0001%2F20060414%2F0726996803.htm&sc=1104 Home | Propeller ] ]
In many cases the person portraying Jesus is first subjected to flagellation and wears a crown of thorns. Sometimes there is a whole passion play, sometimes only the mortification of the flesh.
The Crucifixion of Christ is one of the most important parts of any Passion Play, or Mystery Play, production. The story critically leads the audience through death to resurrection, the dividing of the resurrected into 'sheep' (the good, destined for heaven) and 'goats' (sinners, destined for hell), and to God and Christ in Glory. A typical account is in the York Waggon Plays performed by the Guilds of York, currently every four years. (next production summer 2010). This mediaeval set of plays includes two that depict Christ's Death (1) The Crucifixion (Christ is put on the cross) and (2) the Death of Christ. The second of these was traditionally played by the Butchers' Gild as the butchers took on a supplementary role in civic life as the city's executioners.
Crucifixion in popular culture
The cover art of Tupac Shakur's album features an image of Tupac being crucified on a cross. However, he stated that the image was not a mockery of Christ, but how he was being "crucified" by the media.
In the music video for "Hate Me Now" by Nas featuring Puff Daddy, Nas is seen being crucified.
One of Sevendust's songs in their album Seasons is called "Crucified". The only reference to crucifixion in the song is the lyrics "I've been crucified, and no one seems to care" and "The first time I knew you lied, I ended up crucified" It is possible that the latter lyric could refer to Judas "selling out" Christ.
In the music video for "Until It Sleeps" by Metallica, Kirk Hammett was briefly shown crucified in the video.
Carnehan in "The Man Who Would Be King" and Joe Harmon in "A Town Like Alice" both survive crucifixion.
"Big Bill Shelley" (played by David Carradine) in the movie Boxcar Bertha, was crucified on the side of a train freight car near the end of the movie.
Crucifixion was featured in the comedy film "Monty Python's Life of Brian" (1979). In one of the more memorable scenes at the end of the film, the viewer is reminded to "always look on the bright side of life" by singers hanging from crosses.
Conan the Barbarian is nailed on a tree in a desert in the Robert Howard story "A Witch Shall be Born".
Characters played by Arnold Schwarzenegger are crucified both in "Conan the Barbarian" (1982) and in "End of Days" (1999). Also, in the latter movie a priest is crucified to the ceiling of a hospital room.
The movie "Cyborg" has multiple scenes of crucifixion.
The movie "Men Behind the Sun" features mass crucifixion in a scene in which innocent victims are used for various cruel experiments.
The movie "Spartacus" depicts mass crucifixions along the Appian Way.
The opening scene of the movie "" features a crowd of upside down-crucifixions, mirroring the crucifixion of Saint Peter.
In 1991, Army of Lovers released a single describing voluntary crucifixions as expressions of religious devotion in the Philippines. "Crucified" performed well on the DMR club charts, but controversial lyrics ("I'm crucified, crucified like my Savior; saint-like behavior, a lifetime I pray") precluded widespread radio play.
According to urban legends,[" [http://www.snopes.com/holidays/christmas/cross.asp ]
] ", Snopes.] a Japanese department store confused Western imagery and displayed a crucified Santa Claus as part of its Christmas decorations.Robert Cenedella actually painted a crucified Santa Claus as a protest against Christmas commercialization, displayed in the window of New York's Art Students League in December 1997.
The song "The Ballad of John and Yoko" was banned by several US radio stations, due to Lennon's use of the word "Christ" and the phrase "They're gonna crucify me" in the lyric. In fact, the song's working title was "The Ballad of John and Yoko (They're Going to Crucify Me)". Tori Amos's early hit single "Crucify" was also dropped in numerous locations because of its imagery.Fact|date=October 2007
Multiple Marilyn Manson videos such as "I Don't Like The Drugs But The Drugs Like Me" and "Coma White" feature crucifixion imagery, often oddly staged in surreal modern or near modern day settings. Often questioning the truthfulness of the crucifixion of Jesus in such songs as Cruci-Fiction in Space.
The song "Auf Achse" by Scottish band Franz Ferdinand describes the crucifixion.
Singer Madonna opened her concerts during her 2006 tour with a mock crucifixion, complete with a Crown of Thorns. This caused considerable controversy, especially when she did so at a concert near Vatican City in 2006. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/showbiz/showbiznews.html?in_article_id=387254&in_page_id=1773]
Norwegian black metal band Gorgoroth had several people on stage affixed to crosses to give the appearance of crucifixion at a now infamous concert in Krakow, and repeated this act in the music video for 'Carving a Giant'.
Dimmu Borgir, another Norwegian black metal band, referred to Jesus' crucifixion in their music video of "In Sorgens Kammer Del 2"
In the 2006 movie, The Nativity Story, there is a brief scene in which several men are crucified.
The music video for the Nine Inch Nails hit single "Closer" features a controversial scene in which a live monkey is tied to a cross in a mock crucifixion.
The FPS game Unreal features crucified Nalis multiple times. However, there is a twist, as Nalis have four arms, so the crosses have two crosspieces in an X-shape.
Superman is often associated with Christ-like imagery, including scenes resembling crucifixion. This includes scenes in the film "Superman Returns", and the first episode of the television series "Smallville". What is probably the most explicit use of this imagery is in the Elseworlds graphic novel "", in which Batman finds the body of the 'Green Man' (Superman, dead of Kryptonite poisoning) suspended from a crossbeam in a medical laboratory where it was being studied.
Wolverine of the X-Men was crucified on an fittingly X-shaped cross in Uncanny X-Men #251. Due to his healing factor, he survived.
In the video for R.E.M.'s "Losing My Religion," they feature a scene depicting Thomas fingering the wounds of the crucified Christ.
Washington DC based punk band Iron Cross wrote a song called "Crucified" about the perceptions of punks and skinheads by mainstream society. The song was later covered by Agnostic Front
Professional wrestling
A mock crucifixion was staged by Extreme Championship Wrestling wrestlers Raven and The Sandman in 1996. In a 1998 edition of "WWF Monday Night RAW", The Undertaker handcuffed Stone Cold Steve Austin, crucifix-style, to a large version of the Undertaker's symbol, a combination of a shovel, pick, and sickle which resembled a cross.
Anime series
In the anime "Bleach" on episode 54, when the Shinigami Rukia Kuchiki is about to be executed at the Sogyoku Hill, she's restrained in a position that is very similar to crucifixion.
In episode 74 of the "Sailor Moon R" series, the Inner Senshi are captured by Rubeus and crucified on rock crystal crosses inside of his space ship. And also in episode 123 of "Sailor Moon S", during Chibiusa's nightmare, Hotaru Tomoe is bound on a cross with skeletal arms and hands.
In the short clips Mazin saga, Sayaka Yumi's robot Aphrodite is tied up to a crucifix and is finally rescued by other Go Nagai robots.
In the Pokémon movie Mewtwo Returns, when Mewtwo was forced to be detained by Giovanni's most powerful machine, he was set in a crucified position with a mirror similarity to Jesus's.
In "Naruto", Kakashi is on a capital T cross in Itachi's illusion and is stabbed with a sword instead of a spear.Also in Naruto, a young boy's father is murdered on a wooden cross.
At the end of the cultural festival arc of "School Rumble" S2, Kenji Harima was tied up on a cross and nailed on the ceiling while everyone was celebrating the end of the festival as punishment for sleeping in the bed used for his class play.
Near the end of Neon Genesis Evangelion, the Mass-Production Evangelions fall to earth in cruciform poses, as well as the angel Lilith crucified in Terminal Dogma
In one episode of "Samurai Champloo", two of the main characters narrowly escape crucifixion for unknowingly using fake passports at a checkpoint.
In a few first episodes of "Wolf's Rain", the Flower Maiden Cheza sleeps underwater with a crucified form when checked by the scientist Cher Degré.
In episode 3 of "Macross Plus", as Myung Fang Lone attempts to deactivate the Virturoid Idol Sharon Apple, she is caught in coils of audio/video cables before being suspended in mid-air in a crucifix-like stance.
Crucifixion-type imagery is employed in several of the popular Final Fantasy games, including the 7th, 8th, and 10th installments of the series.
In one scene of the Square-Enix videogame, Xenogears, there is a scene involving the crucifixion of mech-robots. Also in the game, Elly (the main heroine) is captured then crucified before Deus.
In "Higurashi no Naku Koro ni" Satoko is stabbed with a knife by Shion while chained to a cross.
In One Piece, "Luffy" finds "Roronoa Zoro" tied to a wooden cross while being held prisoner by the Navy.
Crucifixion of Jesus in cinema
Movies dating back to the days of the silent films have depicted the crucifixion of Jesus. Most of these follow the traditional (and often inaccurate) pattern established by medieval and Renaissance artists, though there have been several notable exceptions. In "The Passover Plot" (1976) the two thieves aren't shown to either side of Jesus but instead one is on a cross behind and facing him while the other is on a cross in front of and facing away from him. "Ben-Hur (1959)" may be the first Biblical movie to show the nails being driven through the wrists rather than the palms. "Jesus of Nazareth" is one of the first movies to show Jesus carrying just the crossbeam to Calvary rather than the entire cross. "The Last Temptation of Christ" is the first movie to show Jesus naked on the cross. [http://www.premiere.fr/var/premiere/storage/images/cinema/photos/diaporama/la-derniere-tentation-du-christ/la-derniere-tentation-du-christ-the-last-temptation-of-christ-1987__6/7709183-1-fre-FR/la_derniere_tentation_du_christ_the_last_temptation_of_christ_1987_reference.jpgImage1] [http://www.bsospirit.com/comentarios/images/lasttemptation_cruz.jpgImage2] In "The Gospel of John" (2003), Jesus' feet are shown being nailed through the ankle to each side of the upright portion of the cross. In The Passion of the Christ (2004), the crucifixion scene depicts Jesus's hands being impaled, and the centurions dislocating his shoulder in order to impale his right hand, and impaling his feet, and then turning the cross over to block the nails from coming out.
Other
In 2000, British artist Sebastian Horsley had himself nailed to a cross in the Philippines in order to gain inspiration for an art project of his.
Famous crucifixions
*Jesus of Nazareth, the best-known case of crucifixion, was condemned to crucifixion [ That this was the manner of his death is not only recounted in the four first-century canonical Gospels, but it is referred to repeatedly, as something well known, in the earlier letters of Saint Paul, for instance five times in his First Letter to the Corinthians, written in AD 57 (1:13, 1:18, 1:23, 2:2, 2:8). Pilate was the Roman governor at the time, and he is explicitly linked with the condemnation of Jesus not only by the Gospels but also by Tacitus, "Annals', 15.44.] (most likely in AD 30 or 33) by Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Iudaea province. According to the New Testament, this was at the instigation of the Jewish leaders, who were scandalized at his claim to be the Messiah, see Responsibility for the death of Jesus for details. The civil charge was a claim to be King of the Jews, see also Titulus.
*The rebel slaves of the Third Servile War: Between 73 BC and 71 BC a band of slaves, eventually numbering about 120,000, under the (at least partial) leadership of Spartacus were in open revolt against the Roman republic. The rebellion was eventually crushed, and while Spartacus himself most likely died in the final battle of the revolt, approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200 km road between Capua and Rome, as a warning to any other would-be rebels.
*Saint Peter, Christian apostle: according to tradition, Peter was crucified upside down at his own request (hence the Cross of St. Peter), as he did not feel worthy to die the same way as Jesus. Note that upside-down crucifixion would not result in death from asphyxiation.
*Saint Andrew, Christian apostle: according to tradition, crucified on an X-shaped cross, hence the name St. Andrew's Cross
*Simeon of Jerusalem, 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified either 106 or 107
*Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln was an English boy whose disappearance in 1255 prompted a blood libel against the local Jews. A Jewish man was tortured until he confessed to killing the child. The story of Little Saint Hugh became well known through medieval ballad poetry.
*Archbishop Joachim of Nizhny Novgorod: reportedly crucified upside down, on the Royal Doors of the Cathedral in Sevastopol, Russia in 1920
*Wilgefortis was venerated as a saint and represented as a crucified woman, however her legend comes from a misinterpretation of the full-clothed crucifix of Lucca.
References
ee also
External links
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=lw195 New Scientist] article on cause of death in crucifixion.
* [http://e-forensicmedicine.net/Turin2000.htm "Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion" by Dr. Frederick Zugibe]
* [http://www.konnections.com/Kcundick/crucifix.html Jesus's death on the cross, from a medical perspective]
* [http://www.joezias.com/CrucifixionAntiquity.html "Crucifixion in antiquity - The Anthropological evidence"] By Joe Zias
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=C Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion]
* [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Contrad/External/crucify.html Crucifixion in Ancient Egypt] at Islamic-Awareness.org
* [http://thecrucifixions.blogspot.com/2007/02/crucifixion-of-joachim-of-nizhny.html Crucifixion of Joachim of Nizhny-Novgorod]
*1911