Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) 10mg Pill (Ciba/Novartis), a drug commonly prescribed to treat ADHD

The causes, diagnosis, and the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been the subject of active debate at least since the 1970s.[1][2][3][4] For various reasons, ADHD remains one of the most controversial psychiatric disorders[5][6] despite being a well validated clinical diagnosis.[7] Possible overdiagnosis of ADHD, the use of stimulant medications in children, and the methods by which ADHD is diagnosed and treated are some of the main areas of controversy.[8]

According to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) ADHD has attracted controversy from many people. The criticisms include: how it is diagnosed, negative stereotyping of children, risks of other conditions being misdiagnosed as ADHD and alleged hegemonic practices of the American Psychiatric Association. Some even question the very existence of ADHD.[9]:p.23

NICE concluded that while it is important to acknowledge the body of academic literature which raise controversies and criticisms surrounding ADHD for the purpose of developing clinical guidelines, it is not possible to offer alternative methods of assessment (i.e. ICD 10 and DSM IV) or therapeutic treatment recommendations. NICE stated that this is because the current therapeutic treatment interventions and methods of diagnosis for ADHD are based on the dominant view of the academic literature.[9]:p.133 NICE further concluded that despite such criticism, ADHD represented a valid clinical condition [9]:p.138 with genetic, environmental, neurobiological, and demographic factors.[9]:p.139 Although the diagnosis has a high level of support from clinicians and most medical authorities,[9][10] a number of alternative theories[11][12] explaining the symptoms of ADHD have been proposed which range from describing ADHD as part of the normal spectrum of behavior instead of a disorder to rejecting its existence outright.[13] These views include the Hunter vs. farmer theory, Neurodiversity, and the Social construct theory of ADHD.

The best course of ADHD management is also a source of debate. Stimulants are the most commonly prescribed medication for ADHD, and, according to the National Institute of Mental Health, "under medical supervision, stimulant medications are considered safe".[14] Safety concerns exist with concerns regarding the higher rates of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder as well as increased severity of these disorders in individuals with a past history of stimulant use for ADHD in childhood.[15] The use of stimulant medications for the treatment of ADHD has generated controversy because of undesirable side effects, uncertain long term effects, and social and ethical issues regarding their use and dispensation. Children comprise the majority of ADHD diagnoses, but because they are unable to give informed consent due to their age, treatment decisions are ultimately determined by their legal guardians on their behalf. Ethical and legal issues also arise from the promotion of stimulants to treat ADHD by groups and individuals who receive money from drug companies.[7][16]

Contents

Status as a disorder

The controversy surrounding ADHD involves clinicians, scientists, teachers, policymakers, parents and the media with opinions regarding ADHD ranging from those who do not believe it exists to those who believe that there are genetic and physiological bases for the condition.[2] Controversy continues to grow over the diagnosis, treatment and cause and etiology of ADHD, as well as concerns surrounding the long term effects of the stimulants used to treat ADHD.[17][18] The controversies around ADHD have been on-going at least since the 1970s.[1] Questioning of the safety of stimulants began in the 1990s among the general population when anti-Ritalin advocates denounced it as "kiddie cocaine".[19] In the most accepted authority on clinical diagnoses of psychological behavior, the DSM-IV, ADHD is included as a genuine disorder while significant controversy surrounds how it is diagnosed and treated.[18]

Researchers from McMaster University identified five features of ADHD that contribute to its controversial nature:

  1. It is a clinical diagnosis for which there are no laboratory or radiological confirmatory tests or specific physical features.
  2. Diagnostic criteria have changed frequently.
  3. There is no curative treatment, so long-term therapies are required.
  4. Therapy often includes stimulant drugs that are thought to have abuse potential.
  5. The rates of diagnosis and of treatment substantially differ across countries.[20]

Skepticism about the diagnosis

Skepticism about the validity of the diagnosis was in 2002 a minority opinion in the general U.S. population; a survey found that of the 64% who had heard of ADHD, 78% believed it to be a "real disease".[21] In the United States, African-American parents state that their friends and family are often unsure about the legitimacy of ADHD.[22] In a small study from 1999 of nine Australian health care professionals, three were skeptical of ADHD as a valid diagnosis.[23] In 1998 Fred Baughman stated "ADHD is total, 100% fraud" as a counter claim to Russell Barkley's 1995 comment that "ADHD is real".[24] Meyers states that in the 1990s some social conservatives began to see ADHD as a sign of societies' hostility towards men and as an infringement upon the family.[25]

In 2002, Russell Barkley, a prominent researcher and author on the subject of ADHD, published The International Consensus Statement on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), signed by 86 psychiatrists and psychologists, including several of the most widely published and cited researchers in psychiatry, which asserts the existence of ADHD and denies the existence of controversy within the medical community.[26] Two critiques of their statements have since been published in the peer reviewed literature questioning the negative tone they have used to describe researchers with views differing from their own.[27][28]

In a June 2009 paper, the chair of the DSM-IV Task Force referred to one of DSM-IV’s unintended consequences as false "epidemics," attributing the sudden increases in the diagnosis of autism, bipolar disorder and ADHD to changes made in the DSM-IV definitions of those disorders.[29]

In 2002, 8% of readers of the British Medical Journal who answered an online survey listed ADHD as one of the 10 top "non-diseases". The BMJ survey defined non-diseases as meaning "a human process or problem that some have defined as a medical condition but where people may have better outcomes if the problem or process was not defined in that way." They did not deny that non-diseases do entail real problems or suffering. For example, obesity, hypercholesterolaemia, and menopause all received a greater number of votes on this survey.[30][31]

Robins and Guze's[32] criteria assert that the validity of any diagnosis must derive from empirical research and that some of this research must examine the neurobiologic causes and correlates of disorders. The Robins and Guze criteria view the validity of diagnoses as arising from empirical studies demonstrating the following: 1) the diagnosis has well-defined clinical correlates, 2) the diagnosis can be delimited from other diagnoses, 3) the disorder has a characteristic course and outcome, 4) the disorder shows evidence of heritability from family and genetic studies, 5) data from laboratory studies demonstrate other neurobiologic correlates of the disorder, and 6) the disorder shows a characteristic response to treatment. A 2005 review recognizes the ongoing controversial nature of ADHD among both clinicians and the general public. It found that it fulfills the Robins and Guze criteria which support the idea that ADHD is a valid diagnostic category.[33] A 2008 review, however, came to the opposite conclusion and states that: "Evidence for a genetic or neuroanatomic cause of ADHD is insufficient. [...] ADHD is unlikely to exist as an identifiable disease."[34]

Concerns about methods of diagnosis

ADHD is controversial in part because most children are diagnosed and treated based on decisions made by their parents and clinicians with teachers being the primary source of diagnostic information. Only a minority, about 20%, of children who end up with a diagnosis of ADHD show hyperactive behavior in the physician's office.[35][36][37]

The number of people diagnosed with ADHD in the U.S. and UK has grown dramatically over a short period of time. Critics of the diagnosis, such as Dan P. Hallahan and James M. Kauffman in their book Exceptional Learners: Introduction to Special Education, have argued that this increase is due to the ADHD diagnostic criteria being sufficiently general or vague to allow virtually anybody with persistent unwanted behaviors to be classified as having ADHD of one type or another, and that the symptoms are not supported by sufficient empirical data.[38]

Tools that are designed to analyze a person's behavior, such as the Brown scale or the Conners scale, for example, attempt to assist parents and providers in making a diagnosis by evaluating an individual on typical behaviors such as "Hums or makes other odd noises", "Daydreams" and "Acts 'smart'"; the scales rating the pervasiveness of these behaviors range from "never" to "very often". Connors[who?] states that, based on the scale, a valid diagnosis can be achieved; critics, however, counter Connors' proposition by pointing out the breadth with which these behaviors may be interpreted.[citation needed] This becomes especially relevant when family and cultural norms are taken into consideration; this premise leads to the assumption that a diagnosis based on such a scale may actually be more subjective than objective.[citation needed] (See cultural subjectivism.)

Some of the criticism does not reject the concept of ADHD as a valid disorder, but alleges that children with problematic behavior are often diagnosed with ADHD when the behavior may result from other causes. Critics state that some children diagnosed with ADHD, or labeled ADHD by parents or teachers, are normal but do not behave in the way that responsible adults want them to behave.[39]

ADHD is purely a diagnosis by exclusion with no definitive physical test.[40] This leads to situations where one doctor would say a child needs psychotropic medication while another doctor could say the child is perfectly normal.[41] Concern exists that "elevated but still developmentally normal levels of motor activity, impulsiveness, or inattention" traits of childhood could be inappropriately interpreted as ADHD.[42][43]

Over / under diagnosis

In 2005 82% of teachers in the United States considered ADHD to be over diagnosed while 3% considered it to be under diagnosed. In China 19% of teachers considered ADHD to be over diagnosed while 57% considered it to be under diagnosed.[44]

Changing diagnostic criteria

For over seventy years in the United States, symptoms of what is now called ADHD have had different labels.[45] The fact that the diagnostic criteria and the name used to describe the set of characteristics that make up ADHD have changed over time has led to concerns.[46]

Views of ADHD outside North America

In 2009, the British Psychological Society and the Royal College of Psychiatrists, in collaboration with the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE), released a set of diagnosis and treatment guidelines for ADHD.[47] These guidelines reviewed studies by Ford et al. that found that 3.6% of boys and 0.85% of girls in Britain qualified for a diagnosis of ADHD using the American DSM-IV guidelines.[48] The guidelines go on to state that the prevalence drops to 1.5% when using the ICD-10 diagnosis of Hyperkinetic Disorder. The ICD-10 criteria are more commonly used outside of North America.

A systematic review of the literature in 2007 found that the worldwide prevalence of ADHD was 5.29%, and that there were no significant differences in prevalence rates between North America and Europe. The review did find differences between prevalence rates in North America and those in Africa and the Middle East, but cautioned that this may be due to the small number of studies available from those regions.[49]

Norwegian National Broadcasting (NRK) broadcast a short television series in early 2005 on the extreme increase in the use of Ritalin and Concerta for children. Sales were six times higher in 2004 than in 2002. The series included the announcement of a successful group therapy program for 127 unmedicated children aged four to eight, some with ADHD and some with oppositional defiant disorder.[50]

Anti-psychiatry movement

Members of the anti-psychiatry movement such as Fred Baughman and Peter Breggin[51][52][53][54] have extensively used the popular media to criticize ADHD and medications used for ADHD. Baughman has also published articles about ADHD in peer reviewed journals.[55] They have testified at Congressional hearings on the use of Ritalin and supported legal challenges such as the Ritalin class action lawsuits. There is also a movement called critical psychiatry that often refers to their writings, but in contrast to Scientologists (see below), they are not "anti-psychiatry," but critics of some of its practices and offer alternative models and perspectives.[56]

Scientology

The Church of Scientology, which opposes all psychiatric treatment, has vocally criticized ADHD and its treatments[57] and played a leading role in the anti-Ritalin campaign in the late 1980s.[58] The church states that mental disorders are a fraud,[59] "mental and behavioral problems are largely incorrect diagnoses that cover symptoms and don't handle the real problems, which may be physical or spiritual".[60]

Personality trait

Some believe that many of the traits of those diagnosed with ADHD are personality traits and are not indicative of a disorder. These traits may be undesirable in modern society, leading to difficulty functioning in society, and thus have been labeled as a disorder.[61] Some conservatives see ADHD as being an attack on masculine traits and the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD as an attack on traditional management of behavioural traits such as by discipline as well as intervention of the state into the sanctity of the family and the private citizen.[62]

Questions concerning the cause

The pathophysiology of ADHD is unclear and there are a number of competing theories.[63]

ADHD as a biological illness

One of the most controversial issues regarding ADHD is whether it is wholly or even predominantly a biological illness leading to a chemical or structural defect in the brain. The current predominance of opinion in medicine is that ADHD is a mixture of genetics and the environment however the pathophysiology is unclear at this time.[64] Frequently observed differences in the brain between ADHD and non-ADHD patients have been discovered,[65][66][67][68][69][70] but it is uncertain if or how these differences give rise to the symptoms of ADHD. Xavier Castellanos, the former head of ADHD research at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), is "firmly convinced that ADHD is a biological illness", but he also noted, regarding our understanding ADHD and the brain, "We don't yet know what's going on in ADHD." [71] Neuroimaging and genetic studies have revealed associations with ADHD, however according to NICE ADHD itself does not represent a neurological disease.[9]

In "Rethinking ADHD: International Perspectives" an alternative paradigm for ADHD argues that, while biological factors may obviously play a large role in difficulties sitting still and/or concentrating on schoolwork in some children, the vast majority of children manifesting this behavior do not have a biological deficit.[39] For a variety of reasons they have failed to integrate into their psychology the ability to work at chores that are expected of them. Their restlessness and daydreaming is similar to the behavior of other, normal children when they are not engaged, and are bored and trapped by circumstances. Very frequently, children with ADHD have no difficulty concentrating on activities that they find to be interesting. When they are taught by a charismatic entertaining teacher, they similarly can concentrate.[39]

Although ADHD is said to be highly heritable and twin studies suggest genetics are a factor in about 75% of ADHD cases,[72] some nevertheless question the genetic connection. Dr. Joseph Glenmullen states, "no claim of a gene for a psychiatric condition has stood the test of time, in spite of popular misinformation. Although many theories exist, there is no definitive biological, neurological, or genetic etiology for 'mental illness'."[73] His critics argue that ADHD is a heterogeneous disorder[72] caused by a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors and thus cannot be modeled accurately using the single gene theory. Authors of a review of ADHD etiology have noted: "Although several genome-wide searches have identified chromosomal regions that are predicted to contain genes that contribute to ADHD susceptibility, to date no single gene with a major contribution to ADHD has been identified."[74]

The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database has a listing for ADHD under autosomal dominant heritable conditions, noting that multiple genes contribute to the disorder. OMIM currently lists 8 genes with variants known to contribute to ADHD.[75]

Neuroimaging and ADHD

Various types of neuroimaging suggest there are differences in the brain, such as thinner regions of the cortex, between individuals with and without ADHD.[76] The methodology of some lobar volumetric studies used to evaluate cortex thinning in ADHD has been criticized as having "troubling reductionistic emphasis."[77] Critics contend that in some studies, the controls for stimulant medication usage were inadequate which makes it impossible to determine whether ADHD itself or psychotropic medication used to treat ADHD is responsible for decreased thickness observed in certain brain regions.[78][79] Jonathan Leo and David Cohen, who reject the characterization of ADHD as a disorder, believe many neuroimaging studies are oversimplified in both popular and scientific discourse and given undue weight despite deficiencies in experimental methodology.[78]

Hunter vs. farmer theory of ADHD

The hunter vs. farmer theory is a hypothesis proposed by author Thom Hartmann about the origins of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). He believes that these conditions may be a result of adaptive behavior of the species, his theory states that those with ADHD retain some of the older hunter characteristics.[80]

Neurodiversity

Proponents of this theory assert that atypical (neurodivergent) neurological development is a normal human difference that is to be tolerated and respected as any other human difference. They usually support treatment or therapy, but may or may not agree with the use of medication. Social critics argue that while biological factors may obviously play a large role in difficulties sitting still and/or concentrating on schoolwork in some children, for a variety of reasons they have failed to integrate into the social expectations that others have of them.[81]

Social construct theory of ADHD

It has been argued that even if it is a social construct, this does not mean it is not a valid condition, for example obesity has different cultural constructs but yet has demonstratable adverse effects associated with it.[82] A minority of these critics maintain that ADHD was "invented and not discovered". They believe that no disorder exists and that the behavior observed is not abnormal and can be better explained by environmental causes or just the personality of the "patient."[83]

Concerns about medication

The National Institute of Mental Health recommends stimulants for the treatment of ADHD, and states that, "under medical supervision, stimulant medications are considered safe".[14] A 2007 drug class review found no evidence of any differences in efficacy or side effects in the stimulants commonly prescribed.[84] However, the use of stimulant medications for the treatment of ADHD has generated controversy because of undesirable side effects, uncertain long term effects, and social and ethical issues regarding their use and dispensation.

Frequency of stimulant use

In the 1990s the United States used 90% of the stimulants produced globally, in the 2000s this has decreased to 80% due to increased use in other areas of the world.[85] The UK uses one tenth while France and Italy use one twentieth the methylphenidate per capita as the USA.[85]

Concerns about side effects and long term effectiveness

Some parents and professionals have raised questions about the side effects of drugs and their long term use.[86] A study by Dr. Peter Jensen, et. al, into long-term effects shows that medication does not have a significant advantage over behavioral management at three years, despite showing a benefit at 14 and 24 months.[87] This has led to interest in non-drug treatments such as omega-3 oils which can help symptoms of ADHD.[88] On February 9, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration voted to recommend a "black-box" warning describing the cardiovascular risks of stimulant drugs used to treat ADHD.[89]

A 2008 review found that the use of stimulants improved teachers' and parents' ratings of behavior; however, it did not improve academic achievement.[90] The same review also indicates growth retardation for children consistently medicated over three years, compared to unmedicated children in the study.[90] Intensive treatment for 14 months has no effect on long term outcomes 8 years later.[91] No significant differences between the various drugs in terms of efficacy or side effects have been found.[92][93]

Animal research on the neurotoxicity of amphetamines has found contradictory results. For example in rats doses of amphetamines equivalent to those used therapeutically to treat ADHD were suggestive of benefits to the dopamine system. In primates therapeutic equivalent doses were found to cause reductions in striatal dopamine transporter density. Humans with ADHD were also found to have increased striatal dopamine transporter density that is reduced by ADHD medications. More research has been recommended into the long-term effects of amphetamines in the treatment of ADHD.[94]

Long term effects

Methylphenidate, an amphetamine derivative and potent central nervous system stimulant,[95][96] can also lead to a psychosis from chronic use. Although the safety profile of short-term methylphenidate therapy in clinical trials has been well established, repeated use of psychostimulants such as methylphenidate is less clear. Long term effects of methylphenidate, such as drug addiction, withdrawal reactions and psychosis, have received very little research attention and thus are largely unknown.[97] There is limited data regarding long term use of stimulants which suggests that there may be modest benefits in correctly diagnosed children with ADHD but there are also overall modest risks.[98] The long term effects on the developing brain and on mental health disorders in later life of chronic use of methylphenidate is unknown. Despite this, between 0.51% to 1.23% of children between the ages of 2 and 6 years take stimulants in the USA. Stimulants drugs are not approved for this age group.[99][100]

While ADHD is associated with an increased risk of substance abuse, stimulant medications have been shown to reduce the risk of subsequent development of substance abuse.[101][102]

Concerns have been raised that long-term therapy might cause paranoia, schizophrenia and behavioral sensitization, similar to other stimulants.[103] Psychotic symptoms from methylphenidate can include hearing voices, visual hallucinations, urges to harm oneself, severe anxiety, euphoria, grandiosity, paranoid delusions, confusion, increased aggression and irritability. It is unpredictable in whom methylphenidate psychosis will occur. Family history of mental illness does not predict the incidence of stimulant toxicosis in ADHD children. High rates of childhood stimulant use have been noted in patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder independent of ADHD. Individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar or schizophrenia who were prescribed stimulants during childhood typically have a significantly earlier onset of the psychotic disorder and suffer a more severe clinical course of psychotic disorder in children who are vulnerable to psychotic disorders.[15][104][105]

Young ADHD patients taking stimulant medication may have a reduced rate of height and weight gain during adolescence, but stimulant medication has little effect on the ultimate weight and height of the medicated patient.[106] It is unclear whether the delay in growth is due to stimulant medication or ADHD itself; ethical problems in giving stimulant medication to children without ADHD as experimental controls makes such studies problematic.[107] Some patients will take a period of time off of medication, called a "drug holiday," in hopes of allowing the normal rate of height and weight attainment to resume.[107] Stimulant medication may also inhibit cartilage growth, liver development and central nervous system growth factors.[107] Periodic CBC, differential, and platelet counts are recommended during prolonged use of methylphenidate.[17]

Coercion

It is often not a child's decision to take medication, especially those under the age of six, a group that is seeing a dramatic increase in the prescription of psychiatric medications. Some schools have attempted to require treatment with medications before allowing a child to attend school.[108] The United States has passed a bill against this practice.[108] Thus ethical concerns regarding forced treatment or coercion of minors arise. Some suspect that children are using stimulants as a cognitive enhancer at the request of their achievement-oriented parents.[109]

Non specific nature

Stimulants are often seen as cognitive enhancers or smart drugs. Their effects are non-specific with similar results seen in children and adults with and without ADHD. One finds improved concentration and behavior in all.[110][111][112][113] Due to their non-specific activity, stimulants have been used by writers to increase productivity,[114] as well as by the United States Air Force to improve concentration in combat.[115] A small number of scientists recommend widespread use by the population to increase brain power.[109]

Stimulant misuse

Stimulants are controlled psychotropic substances. They are classified as Schedule II substances (Schedule II: Potential for abuse; potential for psychological or physical addiction; currently accepted medical use).[116]

Controversy has surrounded whether methylphenidate is as commonly abused as other stimulants with many[who?] proposing that its rate of abuse is much lower than other stimulants. However, the majority of studies assessing its abuse potential scores have determined that it has an abuse potential similar to that of cocaine and d-amphetamine.[117]

Both children with and without ADHD abuse stimulants, with ADHD individuals being at the highest risk of abusing or diverting their stimulant prescriptions. Between 16 and 29 percent of students who are prescribed stimulants report diverting their prescriptions. Between 5 and 9 percent of grade/primary and high school children and between 5 and 35 percent of college students have used nonprescribed stimulants. Most often their motivation is to concentrate, improve alertness, "get high," or to experiment.[118]

Stimulant medications may be resold by patients as recreational drugs, and methylphenidate (Ritalin) is used as a study aid by some students without ADHD.[119]

Non-medical prescription stimulant use is high. A 2003 study found that non prescription use within the last year by college students in the US was 4.1%.[120] A 2008 meta analysis found even higher rates of non prescribed stimulant use. It found 5% to 9% of grade school and high school children and 5% to 35% of college students used a nonprescribed stimulant in the last year.[118]

Substance use disorders

There has been controversy surrounding whether ADHD is associated with increased rates of problematic substance misuse. In 2001 the evidence suggested that there was no increased risk of substance use disorders in ADHD children unless there is a co-existing conduct disorder.[121] Studies investigating whether stimulant medication can lead to drug abuse later in life found that despite the higher rate of substance abuse among ADHD patients as a whole, stimulant medication use in childhood did not affect or lowered, the risk for substance of abuse in adulthood compared to unmedicated individuals with ADHD.[122]

A 2009 review, and a 2006 study, found that those who had received stimulants during childhood showed the highest number of cocaine abusers in adulthood, twice that of the other groups thus suggesting that stimulant use during childhood was associated with sensitising or predisposing children to cocaine abuse later in life. Smoking tobacco also appeared to increase the risk of cocaine abuse in this population but even after controlling for tobacco exposure cocaine abuse was still significantly higher in adults who had been medicated with stimulants as children. This risk was still present 15 years after stimulant medication exposure.[123][124]

Advertising

In 2008 five pharmaceutical companies received warning from the FDA regarding false advertising and inappropriate professional slide decks related to ADHD medication.[125] In September 2008 the FDA sent notices to Novartis Pharmaceuticals and Johnson & Johnson regarding advertisings of Focalin XR and Concerta in which they overstated products' efficacies.[126][127] A similar warning was sent to Shire plc with respect to Adderall XR.[128]

Financial conflicts of interest

Russell Barkley, a well known ADHD researcher, admits to taking money from drug companies for speaking and consultancy fees. There are concerns that this may bias his publications.[129]

In 2008, it was revealed that Joseph Biederman of Harvard, a frequently cited ADHD expert, failed to report to Harvard that he had received $1.6 million from drug companies between 2000 and 2007.[16][130] E. Fuller Torrey, executive director of the Stanley Medical Research Institute which finances psychiatric studies, said "In the area of child psychiatry in particular, we know much less than we should, and we desperately need research that is not influenced by industry money."[130]

Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, CHADD, an ADHD advocacy group based in Landover, MD received a total of $1,169,000 in 2007 from pharmaceutical companies. These donations made up 26 percent of their budget.[131] This has been viewed by some as a major conflict of interest.[132]

Concerns about the impact of labeling

Russell Barkley believes labeling is a double-edged sword; there are many pitfalls to labeling but by using a precise label, services can be accessed. He also believes that labeling can help the individual understand and make an informed decision how best to deal with the disorder using evidence based knowledge.[133] Furthermore studies also show that the education of the siblings and parents has at least a short term impact on the outcome of treatment.[134] Barkley states this about ADHD rights: "... because of various legislation that has been passed to protect them. There are special education laws with the Americans with Disabilities Act, for example, mentioning ADHD as an eligible condition. If you change the label, and again refer to it as just some variation in normal temperament, these people will lose access to these services, and will lose these hard-won protections that keep them from being discriminated against. ..."[133] Psychiatrist Harvey Parker, who founded CHADD, states, "we should be celebrating the fact that school districts across the country are beginning to understand and recognize kids with ADHD, and are finding ways of treating them. We should celebrate the fact that the general public doesn't look at ADHD kids as "bad" kids, as brats, but as kids who have a problem that they can overcome".[135]

Social critics believe that this knowledge can effectively become a self-fulfilling prophecy mainly through self-doubt. Thomas Armstrong states that the ADHD label is a "tragic decoy" which severely erodes the potential to see the best in a child.[136] Armstrong has adopted the term neurodiversity (first used by autistic rights activists) as an alternative, less damaging, label.[137] Thom Hartmann has said that the brain disorder label is "a pretty wretched label for any child to have to bear."[138]

Children may be ridiculed at school by their peers for using psychiatric medications including those for ADHD.[139]

In politics and the media

North America

In 2001 in the USA, PBS's Frontline ran a TV show entitled "Medicating kids".[140] The program included a selection of interviews with representatives of various points of view. In a segment entitled Backlash, Fred Baughman, retired neurologist, and Peter Breggin, founder of the 'International Center for the Study of Psychiatry and Psychology', the two of whom PBS described as "outspoken critics who insist [ADHD] is a fraud perpetrated by the psychiatric and pharmaceutical industries on families anxious to understand their children's behavior,"[141] were interviewed on the legitimacy of the disorder. Russell Barkley and Xavier Castellanos, then head of ADHD research at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), defended the viability of the disorder, although Castellanos stated that little is scientifically understood.[142] The validity of the work of many of the ADHD "experts" (including Dr. Biederman) has been called into question by Marcia Angell, former editor in chief of The New England Journal of Medicine,[143] in her book review, Drug Companies & Doctors: A Story of Corruption.[144] Newspaper columnists such as Benedict Carey, science and medical writer for The New York Times, have also written controversial articles on ADHD.[145][146]

Hearings were held[when?] in the US Congress.[citation needed] A series of lawsuits culminating with the failed Ritalin class action lawsuits were in the courts.[when?] This timing also coincided with a dramatic increase in the use of stimulant medication which since[when?] has leveled off.[2]

United Kingdom

Baroness Susan Greenfield, a leading neuroscientist,[147] wanted a wide-ranging inquiry in the House of Lords into the dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ADHD in the UK and its possible causes.[148] This followed a BBC Panorama programme in 2007 which highlighted US research (The Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD by the University of Buffalo showing treatment results of 600[citation needed]) suggesting drugs are no better than therapy for ADHD in the long-term. In the UK medication use is increasing dramatically.[citation needed] Other notable individuals have made controversial statements about ADHD. Terence Kealey, a clinical biochemist and vice-chancellor of University of Buckingham, has stated his belief that ADHD medication is used to control unruly boys' behavior.[149]

Scientology

An article in the Los Angeles Times stated that "the uproar over Ritalin was triggered almost single-handedly by the Scientology movement."[150] The Citizens Commission on Human Rights, an anti-psychiatry group formed by Scientologists in 1969, conducted a major campaign against Ritalin in the 1980s and lobbied Congress for an investigation of Ritalin.[150] Scientology publications identified the "real target of the campaign" as "the psychiatric profession itself" and said that the campaign "brought wide acceptance of the fact that (the commission) [sic] and the Scientologists are the ones effectively doing something about [...] psychiatric drugging".[150] However, Robert Whitaker in his book, Anatomy of an epidemic stated that ever since Eli Lilly used Scientology to their benefit to dismiss concerns regarding Prozac, drug companies have successfully conditioned the public and the media to associate criticisms and controversies surrounding psychotropic drugs to being part of a Scientology conspiracy against their products and psychiatry in general.[151]

The well-known Scientologist Tom Cruise's interview with Matt Lauer was widely watched by the public. In this interview he spoke about the use of medications for mood disorders and also referred to Ritalin and other medications as being "street drugs". The sale of stimulants on campuses is not uncommon; they are used by non ADHD students to tackle drudgery.[152]

Imitation of symptoms

The symptoms of ADHD can be faked fairly easily; possible motives include access to stimulant drugs and/or academic resources.[153][154]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Parrillo, Vincent (2008). Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. p. 63. ISBN 9781412941655. http://books.google.com/?id=mRGr_B4Y1CEC&pg=PA63&dq=percent+who+consider+ADHD+controversial. 
  2. ^ a b c "Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". US department of health and human services. December 1999. http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epcsums/adhdsum.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-02. 
  3. ^ Cohen, Donald J.; Cicchetti, Dante (2006). Developmental psychopathology. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-23737-X. 
  4. ^ Safer DJ (March 2000). "Are stimulants overprescribed for youths with ADHD?". Ann Clin Psychiatry 12 (1): 55–62. doi:10.3109/10401230009147088. PMID 10798827. 
  5. ^ Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J (2008). "ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children". Harv Rev Psychiatry 16 (3): 151–66. doi:10.1080/10673220802167782. PMID 18569037. https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/Medicating_Children_HUP_MBE.pdf. 
  6. ^ Kollins SH (2007). "Abuse liability of medications used to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". The American Journal on Addictions 16 (Suppl 1): 35–42; quiz 43–4. doi:10.1080/10550490601082775. PMID 17453605. 
  7. ^ a b Foreman DM (February 2006). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: legal and ethical aspects". Archives of Disease in Childhood 91 (2): 192–4. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.064576. PMC 2082674. PMID 16428370. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2082674. 
  8. ^ Cormier E (October 2008). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and update". J Pediatr Nurs 23 (5): 345–57. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2008.01.003. PMID 18804015. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0882-5963(08)00005-5. 
  9. ^ a b c d e f "CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): full guideline" (PDF). NHS. 24 September 2008. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG72FullGuideline.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-08. 
  10. ^ Goldman LS, Genel M, Bezman RJ, Slanetz PJ (April 1998). "Diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association". JAMA 279 (14): 1100–7. doi:10.1001/jama.279.14.1100. PMID 9546570. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=. 
  11. ^ Russell A. Barkley. Taking charge of ADHD: the complete, authoritative guide for parents. ISBN 0898620996. 
  12. ^ "Comprehensive References of Scientific Studies on ADHD". http://www.russellbarkley.org/adhd-references.htm. Retrieved 25 September 2009. 
  13. ^ "Rethinking ADHD >> Palgrave.com : Title Page". http://www.palgrave.com/newsearch/title.aspx?PID=277194. 
  14. ^ a b "NIMH · ADHD · The Treatment of ADHD". http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/medications.shtml. 
  15. ^ a b Ross RG (July 2006). "Psychotic and manic-like symptoms during stimulant treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". Am J Psychiatry 163 (7): 1149–52. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.7.1149. PMID 16816217. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/163/7/1149. 
  16. ^ a b Adams G. (9 July 2008). "Harvard medics "concealed drug firm cash"". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/harvard-medics-concealed-drug-firm-cash-842792.html. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  17. ^ a b Kidd PM (October 2000). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children: rationale for its integrative management" (PDF). Altern Med Rev 5 (5): 402–28. PMID 11056411. http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/5/5/402.pdf. 
  18. ^ a b Sim MG, Hulse G, Khong E (August 2004). "When the child with ADHD grows up" (PDF). Aust Fam Physician 33 (8): 615–8. PMID 15373378. http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200408/20040803sim.pdf. 
  19. ^ Meyers p.
  20. ^ Jadad AR, Booker L, Gauld M, et al. (December 1999). "The treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: an annotated bibliography and critical appraisal of published systematic reviews and metaanalyses". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44 (10): 1025–35. PMID 10637682. https://ww1.cpa-apc.org/French_Site/Publications/Archives/CJP/1999/Dec/jadad.htm. 
  21. ^ McLeod JD, Fettes DL, Jensen PS, Pescosolido BA, Martin JK (May 2007). "Public Knowledge, Beliefs, and Treatment Preferences Concerning Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". Psychiatr Serv 58 (5): 626–31. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.58.5.626. PMC 2365911. PMID 17463342. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2365911. 
  22. ^ Olaniyan O, dosReis S, Garriett V, et al. (2007). "Community perspectives of childhood behavioral problems and ADHD among African American parents". Ambul Pediatr 7 (3): 226–31. doi:10.1016/j.ambp.2007.02.002. PMID 17512883. 
  23. ^ Rachel Dryer, Michael J. Kiernan and Graham A. Tyson (2006). "The Effects of Diagnostic Labelling on the Implicit Theories of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Held by Health Professionals". Behaviour Change 23 (3): 177–185. doi:10.1375/bech.23.3.177. 
  24. ^ Cohen, David; Gwynedd Lloyd; Joan Stead (2005). Critical new perspectives on AD/HD. New York: Routledge. pp. 14. ISBN 0-415-36036-6. 
  25. ^ Meyers p. 146
  26. ^ "www.russellbarkley.org". http://www.russellbarkley.org/images/Consensus%202002.pdf. 
  27. ^ Jureidini J; Taylor, D. C. (October 2002). "Does the International Consensus Statement on ADHD leave room for healthy scepticism?". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 11 (5): 240; author reply 241–2. doi:10.1007/s00787-002-0267-1. PMID 12557837. 
  28. ^ Timimi S, Moncrieff J, Jureidini J, et al. (March 2004). "A critique of the international consensus statement on ADHD". Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 7 (1): 59–63; discussion 65–9. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000020192.49298.7a. PMID 15119688. http://www.kluweronline.com/art.pdf?issn=1096-4037&volume=7&page=59. 
  29. ^ Frances, Allen (26 June 2009). "A Warning Sign on the Road to DSM-V: Beware of Its Unintended Consequences" (Full text). Psychiatric Times. http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1425378?verify=0A. Retrieved 2009-09-06. 
  30. ^ http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/324/7334/DC1
  31. ^ Smith R (April 2002). "In search of "non-disease"". BMJ 324 (7342): 883–5. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7342.883. PMC 1122831. PMID 11950739. http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11950739. 
  32. ^ Robins E., Guze S. B. (1970). "Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia". Am J Psychiatry 126 (7): 983–7. PMID 5409569. 
  33. ^ Faraone SV (February 2005). "The scientific foundation for understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 14 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0429-z. PMID 15756510. 
  34. ^ Furman LM (July 2008). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): does new research support old concepts?". J. Child Neurol. 23 (7): 775–84. doi:10.1177/0883073808318059. PMID 18658077. 
  35. ^ Meyers p.5
  36. ^ Sleator EK, Ullmann RK (January 1981). "Can the physician diagnose hyperactivity in the office?". Pediatrics 67 (1): 13–7. PMID 7243422. 
  37. ^ "ADHD in Children: Diagnosis and Assessment by Russell A. Barkley, Ph.D.". http://www.continuingedcourses.net/active/courses/course004.php. 
  38. ^ Hallahn, Dan P.; Kauffman, James M.. Exceptional Learners : Introduction to Special Education Allyn & Bacon; 10th edition (April 8, 2005) ISBN 0-205-44421-0
  39. ^ a b c http://www.palgrave.com/newsearch/title.aspx?PID=277194 Rethinking ADHD
  40. ^ Joughin C, Ramchandani P, Zwi M (May 2003). "Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Am Fam Physician 67 (9): 1969–70. PMID 12751659. Archived from the original on Sep 25, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060925101639/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030501/british.html. 
  41. ^ medicating kids: interviews: dr. lawrence diller PBS - Frontline
  42. ^ Reason R; Working Party of the British Psychological Society (1999). "ADHD: a psychological response to an evolving concept. (Report of a Working Party of the British Psychological Society)". Journal of learning disabilities 32 (1): 85–91. doi:10.1177/002221949903200108. PMID 15499890. http://ldx.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15499890. 
  43. ^ Lakhan SE, Hagger-Johnson GE (2007). "The impact of prescribed psychotropics on youth". Clin Pract Epidemol Ment Health 3 (1): 21. doi:10.1186/1745-0179-3-21. PMC 2100041. PMID 17949504. http://www.cpementalhealth.com/content/3/1/21. 
  44. ^ Norvilitis JM, Fang P (November 2005). "Perceptions of ADHD in China and the United States: a preliminary study". J Atten Disord 9 (2): 413–24. doi:10.1177/1087054705281123. PMID 16371664. 
  45. ^ "Suffer the Restless Children: ADHD, Psychostimulants, and the Politics of Pediatric Mental Health". http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/0/9/2/9/p209292_index.html. 
  46. ^ Jadad AR, Booker L, Gauld M, et al. (December 1999). "The treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: an annotated bibliography and critical appraisal of published systematic reviews and metaanalyses". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44 (10): 1025–35. PMID 10637682. https://ww1.cpa-apc.org/French_Site/Publications/Archives/CJP/1999/Dec/jadad.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-02. 
  47. ^ http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/ADHDFullGuideline.pdf
  48. ^ Ford T, Goodman R, Meltzer H (October 2003). "The British Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey 1999: the prevalence of DSM-IV disorders". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42 (10): 1203–11. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000081820.25107.ae (inactive 2010-01-07). PMID 14560170. 
  49. ^ Polanczyk, G.; De Lima, M. S.; Horta, B. L.; Biederman, J.; Rohde, L. A. (2007). "The Worldwide Prevalence of ADHD: A Systematic Review and Metaregression Analysis". American Journal of Psychiatry 164 (6): 942–8. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942. PMID 17541055. 
  50. ^ Bergløff, Charlotte Berrefjord; Tor Risberg, Kjell Herning (2 May 2005). "Mister diagnosen AD/HD" (in Norwegian). Norwegian National Broadcasting. http://www.nrk.no/programmer/tv/puls/4710766.html. Retrieved 2009-05-09. "title, translated: [They] Lose the Diagnosis AD/HD" 
  51. ^ Talking Back to Ritalin-New Breggin Book Excerpts
  52. ^ An Anti-Psychiatry Reading List
  53. ^ Online Dictionary of Mental Health
  54. ^ TOC - Antipsychiatry Reading Room
  55. ^ Baughman F (July 2006). "There Is No Such Thing as a Psychiatric Disorder/Disease/Chemical Imbalance". PLoS medicine 3 (7): e318. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030318. PMC 1518691. PMID 16848623. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1518691. 
  56. ^ "what is critical psychiatry". http://www.mentalhealth.freeuk.com/what.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-24. 
  57. ^ Fahlén T (March 2002). "[Church of Scientology and criticism of ADHD]" (in Swedish). Lakartidningen 99 (12): 1373–4. PMID 11998173. 
  58. ^ http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/summary/269/18/2369
  59. ^ Scientology's war on psychiatry - Salon.com
  60. ^ http://deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,595091823,00.html?pg=3
  61. ^ http://adhdtexas.com/addptod.htm
  62. ^ Dr Jennifer Erkulwater; Dr Rick Mayes; Dr Catherine Bagwell (2009). Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 146. ISBN 0-674-03163-6. 
  63. ^ "Evaluation and diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children". December 5, 2007. http://www.uptodate.com/online/content/topic.do?topicKey=behavior/8293&selectedTitle=4~150&source=search_result. Retrieved 2008-09-15. 
  64. ^ Dopheide, Julie A. (March 16–20, 2001). "ADHD Part 1: Current Status, Diagnosis, Etiology/Pathophysiology". American Pharmaceutical Association 148th Annual Meeting. APhA 2001. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/418518. Retrieved 2009-04-18. 
  65. ^ Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD, But Follows Normal Pattern NIMH Press Release, November 12, 2007
  66. ^ Lou HC, Andresen J, Steinberg B, McLaughlin T, Friberg L (Jan 1998). "The striatum in a putative cerebral network activated by verbal awareness in normals and in ADHD children". Eur J Neurol 5 (1): 67–74. doi:10.1046/j.1468-1331.1998.510067.x. PMID 10210814. 
  67. ^ Gene Predicts Better Outcome as Cortex Normalizes in Teens with ADHD NIMH Press Release, August 6, 2007
  68. ^ Dougherty DD, Bonab AA, Spencer TJ, Rauch SL, Madras BK, Fischman AJ (1999). "Dopamine transporter density in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". Lancet 354 (9196): 2132––33. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04030-1. PMID 10609822. 
  69. ^ Dresel SH, Kung MP, Plössl K, Meegalla SK, Kung HF (1998). "Pharmacological effects of dopaminergic drugs on in vivo binding of [99mTc]TRODAT-1 to the central dopamine transporters in rats". European journal of nuclear medicine 25 (1): 31–9. PMID 9396872. 
  70. ^ Coccaro EF, Hirsch SL, Stein MA (2007). "Plasma homovanillic acid correlates inversely with history of learning problems in healthy volunteer and personality disordered subjects". Psychiatry research 149 (1–3): 297–302. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.05.009. PMID 17113158. 
  71. ^ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/medicating/interviews/castellanos.html Castellanos interview
  72. ^ a b Barkley, Russel A.. "Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Nature, Course, Outcomes, and Comorbidity". http://www.continuingedcourses.net/active/courses/course003.php. Retrieved 2006-06-26. 
  73. ^ Glenmullin, Joseph (2000). Prozac Backlash. New York: Simon & Schuster, 192-198
  74. ^ M. T. Acosta, M. Arcos-Burgos, M. Muenke (2004). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Complex phenotype, simple genotype?". Genetics in Medicine 6 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1097/01.GIM.0000110413.07490.0B. PMID 14726804. 
  75. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=143465
  76. ^ Philip Shaw, MD; Jason Lerch, PhD; Deanna Greenstein, PhD; Wendy Sharp, MSW; Liv Clasen, PhD; Alan Evans, PhD; Jay Giedd, MD; F. Xavier Castellanos, MD; Judith Rapoport, MD (2006). "Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Clinical Outcome in Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Arch Gen Psychiatry 5 (63): 540–549. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.540. PMID 16651511. 
  77. ^ Denney CB (March 2001). "Stimulant effects in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: theoretical and empirical issues". J Clin Child Psychol 30 (1): 98–109. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3001_11. PMID 11294083. 
  78. ^ a b David Cohen; Jonathan Leo (2004). "An Update on ADHD Neuroimaging Research" (PDF). The Journal of Mind and Behavior (The Institute of Mind and Behavior, Inc) 25 (2): 161–166. ISSN 0271–0137. http://psychrights.org/research/Digest/NLPs/neruoimagingupdate.pdf. "...despite our disagreement with the author’s characterization of ADHD as a “disorder”..." 
  79. ^ David Cohen; Jonathan Leo (2003). "Broken brains or flawed studies? A critical review of ADHD neuroimaging studies". The Journal of Mind and Behavior 24: 29–56. 
  80. ^ Hartmann, Thom (2003). The Edison gene: ADHD and the gift of the hunter child. Rochester, Vt: Park Street Press. ISBN 0-89281-128-5. http://books.google.com/?id=L0l5EaHppyoC&dq=hunter+vs+farmer+The+Edison+Gene:+ADHD+and+the+Gift+of+the+Hunter+Child. 
  81. ^ Rethinking ADHD >> Palgrave.com : Title Page
  82. ^ "Facts, values, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): an update on the controversies". Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 3 (1): 1. 2009. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-1. PMC 2637252. PMID 19152690. http://www.capmh.com/content/3/1/1. 
  83. ^ "CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): NICE guideline" (PDF). NHS. 24 September 2008. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG72NiceGuidelinev3.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-08. 
  84. ^ McDonagh MS, Peterson K, Dana T, Thakurta S. (2007). Drug Class Review on Pharmacologic Treatments for ADHD. Results "lack of evidence of a difference between the drugs studied in efficacy or adverse events."
  85. ^ a b Marwick, C. (2003-01-11). "US doctor warns of misuse of prescribed stimulants". BMJ (Washington, DC) 326 (7380): 67. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7380.67. ISSN 09598138. PMC 1125021. PMID 12521954. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/326/7380/67. 
  86. ^ Lakhan SE, Hagger-Johnson GE (2007). "The impact of prescribed psychotropics on youth". Clin Pract Epidemol Ment Health 3: 21. doi:10.1186/1745-0179-3-21. PMC 2100041. PMID 17949504. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2100041. 
  87. ^ Jensen, PETER S.; Arnold, LE; Swanson, JM; Vitiello, B; Abikoff, HB; Greenhill, LL; Hechtman, L; Hinshaw, SP et al. (2007). "3-Year Follow-up of the NIMH MTA Study". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46 (8): 989–1002. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3180686d48. PMID 17667478.  "In contrast to the significant advantage of MedMgt+Comb over Beh+CC for ADHD symptoms at 14 and 24 months, treatment groups did not differ significantly on any measure at 36 months."
  88. ^ Matsudaira T (2007). "Attention deficit disorders--drugs or nutrition?". Nutr Health 19 (1–2): 57–60. PMID 18309764. 
  89. ^ Nissen SE (April 2006). "ADHD drugs and cardiovascular risk". N. Engl. J. Med. 354 (14): 1445–8. doi:10.1056/NEJMp068049. PMID 16549404. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/354/14/1445. 
  90. ^ a b "What is the evidence for using CNS stimulants to treat ADHD in children?". March - May 2008. http://www.ti.ubc.ca/newsletter/what-evidence-using-cns-stimulants-treat-adhd-children. Retrieved 2011-03-20. 
  91. ^ Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM, et al. (March 2009). "The MTA at 8 Years: Prospective Follow-Up of Children Treated for Combined Type ADHD in a Multisite Study". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48 (5): 484–500. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819c23d0. PMC 3063150. PMID 19318991. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3063150. 
  92. ^ King S, Griffin S, Hodges Z, et al. (July 2006). "A systematic review and economic model of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of methylphenidate, dexamfetamine and atomoxetine for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents". Health Technol Assess 10 (23): iii–iv, xiii–146. PMID 16796929. http://www.hta.ac.uk/execsumm/summ1023.htm. 
  93. ^ Brown RT, Amler RW, Freeman WS, et al. (June 2005). "Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: overview of the evidence". Pediatrics 115 (6): e749–57. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2560. PMID 15930203. 
  94. ^ Advokat C (July 2007). "Update on amphetamine neurotoxicity and its relevance to the treatment of ADHD". J Atten Disord 11 (1): 8–16. doi:10.1177/1087054706295605. PMID 17606768. 
  95. ^ Auriel E, Hausdorff JM, Giladi N (October 2008). "Methylphenidate for the Treatment of Parkinson Disease and Other Neurological Disorders". Clin Neuropharmacol 32 (2): 75–81. doi:10.1097/WNF.0B013E318170576C. PMID 18978488. http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?an=00002826-900000000-99978. 
  96. ^ Abramowicz MJ, Van Haecke P, Demedts M, Delcroix M (September 2003). "Primary pulmonary hypertension after amfepramone (diethylpropion) with BMPR2 mutation". Eur. Respir. J. 22 (3): 560–2. doi:10.1183/09031936.03.00095303. PMID 14516151. http://erj.ersjournals.com/cgi/content/full/22/3/560. 
  97. ^ Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B (September 2006). "The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder". J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) 20 (5): 602–10. doi:10.1177/0269881106061710. PMID 16478756. http://jop.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16478756. 
  98. ^ Kociancic T, Reed MD, Findling RL (March 2004). "Evaluation of risks associated with short- and long-term psychostimulant therapy for treatment of ADHD in children". Expert Opin Drug Saf 3 (2): 93–100. doi:10.1517/eods.3.2.93.27337. PMID 15006715. 
  99. ^ Kimko HC, Cross JT, Abernethy DR (December 1999). "Pharmacokinetics and clinical effectiveness of methylphenidate". Clin Pharmacokinet 37 (6): 457–70. doi:10.2165/00003088-199937060-00002. PMID 10628897. 
  100. ^ Vitiello B (October 2001). "Psychopharmacology for young children: clinical needs and research opportunities". Pediatrics 108 (4): 983–9. doi:10.1542/peds.108.4.983. PMID 11581454. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/108/4/983. 
  101. ^ Faraone SV, Wilens TE (2007). "Effect of stimulant medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on later substance use and the potential for stimulant misuse, abuse, and diversion". J Clin Psychiatry 68 Suppl 11: 15–22. PMID 18307377. 
  102. ^ Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S (January 2003). "Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of the literature". Pediatrics 111 (1): 179–85. doi:10.1542/peds.111.1.179. PMID 12509574. 
  103. ^ Dafny N; Yang PB. (15). "The role of age, genotype, sex, and route of acute and chronic administration of methylphenidate: A review of its locomotor effects". Brain research bulletin. 68 (6): 393–405. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.10.005. PMID 16459193. 
  104. ^ DelBello MP, Soutullo CA, Hendricks W, Niemeier RT, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM (April 2001). "Prior stimulant treatment in adolescents with bipolar disorder: association with age at onset". Bipolar Disorders 3 (2): 53–7. doi:10.1034/j.1399-5618.2001.030201.x. PMID 11333062. 
  105. ^ Soutullo CA, DelBello MP, Ochsner JE, et al. (August 2002). "Severity of bipolarity in hospitalized manic adolescents with history of stimulant or antidepressant treatment". J Affect Disord 70 (3): 323–7. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00336-6. PMID 12128245. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032701003366. 
  106. ^ Faraone SV; Spencer TJ (September 2008). "Effect of stimulants on height and weight: a review of the literature". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47: (9): 977–80. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31817e0ea7. PMID 18580502. 
  107. ^ a b c Joshi SV; Adam, H. M. (February 2002). "ADHD, growth deficits, and relationships to psychostimulant use". Pediatr Rev 23 (2): 67–8; discussion 67–8. doi:10.1542/pir.23-2-67. PMID 11826259. http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/cgi/content/extract/23/2/67. 
  108. ^ a b "Schools Can't Require ADHD Drugs". http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/news/20051116/schools-cant-require-adhd-drugs. 
  109. ^ a b Greely, Henry; Barbara Sahakian, John Harris, Ronald C. Kessler, Michael Gazzaniga, Philip Campbell, Martha J. Farah (2008). "Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy". Nature 456 (7223): 702–705. doi:10.1038/456702a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19060880. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v456/n7223/full/456702a.html. Retrieved December 2008. 
  110. ^ Clayton, Paula J.; Fatemi, S. Hossein (2008). The medical basis of psychiatry. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 318. ISBN 1-58829-917-1. http://books.google.com/?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA318&dq=stimulants+improve+academic+performance. 
  111. ^ "Medscape & eMedicine Log In". http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/442882_5. 
  112. ^ Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Weingartner H, Zahn TP, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ (August 1980). "Dextroamphetamine. Its cognitive and behavioral effects in normal and hyperactive boys and normal men". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 37 (8): 933–43. PMID 7406657. 
  113. ^ Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Zahn TP, Weingartner H, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ (February 1978). "Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioral effects in normal prepubertal boys". Science 199 (4328): 560–3. doi:10.1126/science.341313. PMID 341313. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=341313. 
  114. ^ "My romance with ADHD meds. - By Joshua Foer - Slate Magazine". http://www.slate.com/id/2118315/. 
  115. ^ "Air force rushes to defend amphetamine use". The Age. January 18, 2003. http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/01/17/1042520778665.html. 
  116. ^ Jim Rosack. "Controversy Erupts Over Ads for ADHD Drugs". Psychiatr News 36 (21): 20. http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/36/21/20. 
  117. ^ Kollins SH, MacDonald EK, Rush CR (March 2001). "Assessing the abuse potential of methylphenidate in nonhuman and human subjects: a review". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 68 (3): 611–27. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00464-6. PMID 11325419. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0091-3057(01)00464-6. 
  118. ^ a b Wilens TE, Adler LA, Adams J, et al. (January 2008). "Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47 (1): 21–31. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31815a56f1. PMID 18174822. 
  119. ^ "Ritalin abuse scoring high on college illegal drug circuit". CNN. 2001-01-08. http://edition.cnn.com/2001/HEALTH/children/01/08/college.ritalin/. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  120. ^ McCabe SE, Knight JR, Teter CJ, Wechsler H (January 2005). "Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey". Addiction (Abingdon, England) 100 (1): 96–106. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x. PMID 15598197. 
  121. ^ Lynskey MT, Hall W (June 2001). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders: Is there a causal link?". Addiction 96 (6): 815–22. doi:10.1080/09652140020050988. PMID 11399213. 
  122. ^ Kollins SH (September 2008). "ADHD, substance use disorders, and psychostimulant treatment: current literature and treatment guidelines". Journal of Attention Disorders 12 (2): 115–25. doi:10.1177/1087054707311654. PMID 18192623. 
  123. ^ Institutes of Health, National; Emily S. Davidson. "Stimulant Preexposure Sensitizes Rats and Humans to the Rewarding Effects of Cocaine" (PDF). National Institute on Drug Abuse. pp. 73–76. http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/monographs/Monograph169/056-082_Schenk.pdf. Retrieved 03 June 2009. 
  124. ^ Lambert NM, McLeod M, Schenk S (May 2006). "Subjective responses to initial experience with cocaine: an exploration of the incentive-sensitization theory of drug abuse". Addiction 101 (5): 713–25. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01408.x. PMID 16669905. 
  125. ^ "FDA Warns Five Drugmakers Over ADHD Ads // Pharmalot". http://www.pharmalot.com/2008/09/fda-warns-five-drugmakers-over-adhd-ads/. 
  126. ^ "Focalin XR (dexmethylphenidate hydrochloride) extended-release capsules CII". Warning Letters. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2008-09-25. http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2008/ucm1048118.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05. 
  127. ^ "CONCERTA (methylphenidate HCI) Extended-release Tablets CII". Warning Letters. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2008-09-25. http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2008/ucm1048119.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05. 
  128. ^ "Adderall XR Capsules". Warning Letters. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2008-09-25. http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2008/ucm1048117.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05. 
  129. ^ Southall, Angela (2007). The Other Side of ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Exposed and Explained. Radcliffe Publishing Ltd. p. 41. ISBN 1846190681. http://books.google.com/?id=AKXhThWgvyYC&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=barkley+drug+company+funding. 
  130. ^ a b Harris, Gardiner; Carey, Benedict (2008-06-08). "Researchers Fail to Reveal Full Drug Pay". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/us/08conflict.html?ex=1213502400&en=23737184f344c4ca&ei=5070&emc=eta1. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  131. ^ Susan Buningh. "CHADD’s Income and Expenditures (2006-2007)" (PDF). http://www.chadd.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Reports1&Template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=5148. 
  132. ^ "Drug Companies Pushing ADHD Drugs for Children". CorpWatch. http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=11717. 
  133. ^ a b PBS - frontline: medicating kids: interviews: russell barkley
  134. ^ Practice Parameter for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder http://www.aacap.org/galleries/PracticeParameters/JAACAP_ADHD_2007.pdf
  135. ^ PBS - frontline: medicating kids: interviews: harvey parker
  136. ^ "Myth of ADD". http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/myth_add_adhd.htm. 
  137. ^ Special Education and the Concept of Neurodiversity
  138. ^ Hartmann Interview
  139. ^ Santosh PJ, Taylor E (2000). "Stimulant drugs". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 9 (Suppl 1): I27–43. doi:10.1007/s007870070017. PMID 11140778. 
  140. ^ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/medicating/adhd/ Medicating Kids
  141. ^ PBS - frontline: medicating kids: opponents and backlash
  142. ^ PBS - frontline: medicating kids: interviews: xavier castellanos, m.d
  143. ^ "Marcia Angell". The New York Review of Books. http://www.nybooks.com/authors/10553. Retrieved 2009-07-21. "Marcia Angell is a Senior Lecturer in Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School. A physician, she is a former Editor in Chief of The New England Journal of Medicine." 
  144. ^ Angell, Marcia (15 January 2009). "Drug Companies & Doctors: A Story of Corruption". The New York Review of Books. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22237. Retrieved 2009-07-21. 
  145. ^ Carey, Benedict (2006-12-22). "Parenting as Therapy for Child's Mental Disorders". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/22/health/22KIDS.html. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  146. ^ Carey, Benedict (2006-11-11). "What's Wrong With a Child? Psychiatrists Often Disagree". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/11/health/psychology/11kids.html. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  147. ^ Baroness Susan Greenfield
  148. ^ "Peer calls for ADHD care review". BBC News. 2007-11-14. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/health/7093944.stm. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  149. ^ Kealey, Terence (2004-06-04). "Boisterous boys are too much like hard work so we drug them into conformity". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article440373.ece. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 
  150. ^ a b c Sappell, Joel; Welkos, Robert W. (1990-06-29). "Suits, Protests Fuel a Campaign Against Psychiatry". Los Angeles Times: p. A48:1. http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-scientology062990a,1,6085874,full.story?coll=la-news-comment. Retrieved 2006-11-29.  Backup copy link here
  151. ^ Whitaker, Robert H. (13 April 2010). Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America. USA: Crown Publishing Group (NY). pp. 292–295. ISBN 0-307-45241-7. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JaWtPwAACAAJ. "The wonder drug aura around Prozac had been restored, and the public and the media had been conditioned to associated criticism of psychiatric drugs with Scientology." 
  152. ^ "Latest Campus High: Illicit use of Prescription Medication, Experts and Students Say" NY Times Page B8 3/24/2000.
  153. ^ Newton, Philip M. (July 3, 2010). "How easy is it to fake ADHD?". Psychology Today. From Mouse to Man. http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mouse-man/201007/how-easy-is-it-fake-adhd. 
  154. ^ Sollman, M. J.; Ranseen, J. D.; Berry, D. T. R. (2010). "Detection of feigned ADHD in college students". Psychological Assessment 22 (2): 325–335. doi:10.1037/a0018857.  edit
Bibliography
  • Dr Jennifer Erkulwater; Dr Rick Mayes; Dr Catherine Bagwell (2009). Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03163-6. 

External links


Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Нужен реферат?

Look at other dictionaries:

  • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder — Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Classification and external resources Children with ADHD often find it difficult to do their schoolwork. ICD 10 F …   Wikipedia

  • Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder — OMIM = 143465 MedlinePlus = 001551 eMedicineSubj = med eMedicineTopic = 3103 eMedicine mult = eMedicine2|ped|177 MeshID = D001289 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/adhd/adhd.htm NINDS… …   Wikipedia

  • Developmental disorder — Classification and external resources [[File:image|frameless|upright=1.06|alt=]] ICD 10 F80 F84 ICD 9 299 …   Wikipedia

  • Deficits in Attention, Motor control and Perception — DAMP deficits in attention, motor control and perception is a controversial psychiatric concept conceived by Christopher Gillberg. DAMP is similar to Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD), a concept that was formulated in the 1960s.[1] Both concepts… …   Wikipedia

  • Mental disorder — Classification and external resources Eight women representing prominent mental diagnoses in the 19th century. (Armand Gautier) ICD 10 F …   Wikipedia

  • Major depressive disorder — For other depressive disorders, see Mood disorder. Major Depressive Disorder Classification and external resources …   Wikipedia

  • Eli Lilly controversies — Infobox Company company name = Eli Lilly and Company company company type = Public foundation = 1876 company slogan = Answers that matter location = Indianapolis, Indiana, USA key people = Sidney Taurel, Chairman John C. Lechleiter, President CEO …   Wikipedia

  • Neurodevelopmental disorder — A boy with microcephaly and his schoolmates. Microcephaly is a neurodevelopmental disorder. A neurodevelopmental disorder,[1] or disorder of neural devel …   Wikipedia

  • Methylphenidate — Concerta redirects here. For the musical composition, see Concerto. For the implantable defibrillator named Medtronic Concerto, see defibrillator. Methylphenidate …   Wikipedia

  • Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders — This category reflects the organization of International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision. Generally, diseases outlined within the ICD 10 codes F80 F98 should be included in this category.… …   Wikipedia

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”