Gravitational shielding

The term gravitational shielding refers to a hypothetical process of shielding an object from the influence of a gravitational field. Such processes, if they existed, would have the effect of reducing the weight of an object. All experimental evidence to date indicates that no such process exists. Also, gravitational shielding would be a violation of the equivalence principle and therefore inconsistent with both Newtonian theory and general relativity.Bertolami, O. & Paramos, J. & Turyshev, S. G. (2006), [http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0602016 General Theory of Relativity: Will it survive the next decade?] , in H. Dittus, C. Laemmerzahl, S. Turyshev, Lasers, Clocks, and Drag-Free: Technologies for Future Exploration in Space and Tests of Gravity: 27-67]

Tests of the Equivalence Principle

As of 2008, no official experiment was successful in detecting positive shielding results. To quantify the amount of shielding, MajoranaMajorana, Q., (1920). “On gravitation. Theoretical and experimental researches”, "Phil. Mag." [ser. 6] 39, 488-504.] suggested an extinction coefficient h that modifies Newton’s gravitational force law as follows:

:$F\; =\; frac\{GMm\}\{r^2\}\; e^\{-h\; int\; ho(r)\; dr\}$

The best laboratory measurements have established an upper bound limit for shielding of 4.3×10⁻¹⁵ m²/kg. [ Unnikrishnan and Gillies (2000), Phys Rev D, 61] However, astronomical observations impose much more stringent limits. Based on lunar observations available in 1908, Poincaré [Poincaré, H. (1908). "La dynamique de l'électron", "Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées 19", pp. 386-402, reprinted in Science and Method. Flammarion, Paris. An English translation was published as Foundation of Science, Science Press, New York, 1929.] established that h can be no greater than 10⁻¹⁸ m²/kg. Subsequently this bound has been greatly improved. Eckhardt [D. H. Eckhardt, Phy Rev D, 42, 1990, 2144] showed that lunar ranging data implies an upper bound of 10⁻²² m²/kg, and Williams, et al, [Williams, et al, “Testing the Equivalence Principle on the Ground and in Space”, (2006), to be published by Springer Verlag, Lecture Notes in Physics, gr-qc/0507083] have improved this to h = (3 ± 5)×10⁻²² m²/kg. Note that the value is smaller than the uncertainty. The consequence of the negative results of those experiments (which are in good agreement with the predictions of general relativity) is, that every theory which contains shielding effects like Le Sage's theory of gravitation, must reduce those effects to an undetectable level. For a review of the current experimental limits on possible gravitational shielding, see the survey article by Bertolami, et al. Also, for a discussion of recent observations during solar eclipses, see the paper by Unnikrishnan et al. [ Unnikrishnan, Mohapatra, Gillies (2002), “Anomalous gravity data during the 1997 total solar eclipse do not support the hypothesis of gravitational shielding”, Physical Review D, vol 63, available online at http://www.astro.oma.be/ICET/bim/bim138/vanruymbeke2.htm]

Majorana's Experiments and Russell's criticism

Related to some shielding experiments in the early 20th century conducted by Quirino Majorana, who claimed to have measured positive shielding effects, Russell's analysis of the tidal forces shows that Majorana's positive results have nothing to do with gravitational shielding [Russell, H.N. (1921). “ [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....54..334R On Majorana’s theory of gravitation] ”. Astrophys. J. 54, 334-346.] . To bring Majorana's experiments in accordance with the equivalence principle of General Relativity he proposed a model, in which the mass of a body is diminished by "the proximity" of another body, but he denied any connection between gravitational shielding and his proposal of mass variation. For another explanation of Majorana's experiments, see Coïsson et al [ Coïsson, R.; Mambriani, G.; Podini, P. " [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2002NCimB.117..469C&db_key=PHY&data_type=HTML&format=&high=45673340d404820 A new interpretation of Quirino Majorana's experiments on gravitation and a proposal for testing his results] ", Il Nuovo Cimento B, vol. 117, Issue 04, p.469.] . But Majorana's results couldn't be confirmed up to this day (see the section above) and Russell's mass variation theory, although meant as a modification of general relativity, is inconsistent with standard physics as well.

For a historical review of efforts to detect any effects of gravitational shielding in the early 20th century, see the article by Martins. [Martins, de Andrade, R., 1999. “The search for gravitational absorption in the early 20th century”, in: The Expanding Worlds of General Relativity (Einstein Studies, vol. 7) (eds., Goemmer, H., Renn, J., and Ritter, J.), Birkhäuser, Boston, pp. 3-44.]

Non-mainstream views

The consensus view of the scientific community is that gravitational shielding does not exist, but there have been occasional investigations into this topic, such the 1999 NASA-funded paper by Li, et al. [* N. Li, D. Noever, T. Robertson, R. Koczor and W. Brantley, "Static Test for a Gravitational Force Coupled to Type II YBCO Superconductors", Physica C 281, 260-267] [R. Koczor and D. Noever, "Fabrication of Large Bulk Ceramic Superconductor Disks for Gravity Modification Experiments and Performance of YBCO Disks Under e.m. Field Excitation", NASA Marshall, Huntsville, AL, AIAA 99-2147, 35th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, 20-24 June 1999, Los Angeles, CA.] [ [http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/anti_grav_000928.html Space.com on NASA funding] ] See also the writings of the Russian advocate of "anti-gravity", Podkletnov [* [http://www.americanantigravity.com/podkletnov.html American Anti Gravity] , [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0108005 Podkletnov's Original Paper] ] . While experimenting with rotating superconductors he noticed that pipe smoke from a nearby researcher appeared to be collecting in a column above his apparatus. He then devised an experiment in which he magnetically levitated a superconducting rotating disc, and he reported that objects held above the rotating disc underwent a reduction of between 0.5 to 2% in weight. Podkletnov's work is regarded almost universally as classic pseudophysics.Fact|date=August 2007 Analyses of Podkletnov's observations by Giovanni Modanese [Modanese, G. (1996, August 20). Theoretical analysis of a reported weak-gravitational-shielding effect. "Europhysics Letters", 35(6), 413-418.] and Ning Wu [Wu, N. (2004). Gravitational shielding effect in gauge theory of gravity. "Communications in Theoretical Physics", 41(4), 567-572.] indicated various applications of quantum gravity theory could allow gravitational shielding phenomena. The views of these individuals are regarded as erroneous by the scientific community.

References

External links

* Mathpages: [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath131/kmath131.htm LeSage's Shadows] , [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath426/kmath426.htm Omni-Directional Flux] , [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath610/kmath610.htm Kinetic Pressure and Tetrode’s Star] , [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath041/kmath041.htm Nicolas Fatio and the Cause of Gravity] , [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath181/kmath181.htm Fatio, Le Sage and the camisards] , [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath209/kmath209.htm Historical Assessments of the Fatio-Lesage Theory]

;Supporting gravitational shielding
* Auffray, J.-P.: [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0611300 Preston on E=mc²] and [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0608289 Dual origin of E=mc²]
* Borg Xavier : [http://blazelabs.com/f-g-intro.asp Electromagnetic radiation pressure (EMRP) gravity theory - Blaze Labs Research]
* Buonomano, V.: [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0210032 Co-Operative Phenomena as a Physical Paradigm for Special Relativity, Gravitation and Quantum Mechanics]
* Edwards, et al.: [http://redshift.vif.com/BookBlurbs/PushingGravity.htm Pushing Gravity]
* Halton Arp: [http://www.haltonarp.com/articles/the_observational_impetus_for_le_sage_gravity The Observational Impetus for Le Sage Gravity]
* Mingst, B. & Stowe, P.: [http://www.mountainman.com.au/le_sage.htm Derivation of Newtonian Gravitation from LeSage's Attenuation]
* Popescu, I.I.: [http://www.geocities.com/iipopescu/ether_and_etherons.html Ether and Etherons]
* Tom Van Flandern: [http://www.metaresearch.org/cosmology/gravity/possiblenewpropertiesofgravity.asp Possible new properties of gravity]