Phthalate

Phthalates, or phthalate esters, are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers (substances added to plastics to increase their flexibility). They are chiefly used to soften polyvinyl chloride. Phthalates are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union over health concerns.

Uses

Phthalates are used in a large variety of substances, from enteric coatings of pharmaceutical pills to viscosity control agents, gelling agent, film former, stabilizer, dispersant, lubricants, binder, emulsifying agents, and suspending agents. End applications include adhesives and glues, agriculture, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, plastic objects, paints, printing inks and coatings, pharmaceuticals, food products, polymerizationFact|date=August 2008 and textiles.

As of 2004, manufacturers produce about 363 thousand metric tonnes (800 million pounds or 400 000 short tons) of phthalates each year. They were first produced during the 1920s, and have been produced in large quantities since the 1950s, when PVC was introduced. The most widely-used phthalates are di-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP), diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP) and diisononyl phthalate (DINP). DEHP is the dominant plasticizer used in PVC, due to its low cost. Benzylbutylphthalate (BBzP) is used in the manufacture of foamed PVC, which is mostly used as a flooring material. Phthalates with small R and R' groups are used as solvents in perfumes and pesticides.

Phthalates are also frequently used in soft plastic fishing lures, nail polish, adhesives, caulk, paint pigments, and toys made of so-called "jelly rubber." Phthalates are used in a variety of household applications (shower curtains, adhesives, perfume), modern pop-culture electronics and medical applications such as catheters.

Properties

Phthalate esters are the dialkyl or alkyl aryl esters of phthalic acid (also called 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, not be confused with the isomeric terephthalic or isophthalic acids ); the name "phthalate" derives from phthalic acid, which itself is derived from word "naphthalene". When added to plastics, phthalates allow the long polyvinyl molecules to slide against one another. The phthalates show low water solubility, high oil solubility, and low volatility. The polar carboxyl group contributes little to the physical properties of the phthalates, except when R and R' are very small (such as ethyl or methyl groups).Fact|date=August 2008 They are colorless, odorless liquids produced by reacting phthalic anhydride with an appropriate alcohol (usually 6 to 13 carbon).

Table of more common phthalates

Health effects

Exposure

People are commonly exposed to phthalates, and the majority of Americans tested by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have metabolites of multiple phthalates in their urine. Diet is believed to be the main source of DEHP and other phthalates in the general population, although inhalational exposure is also significant. Baby care products containing phthalates are a source of exposure for infants. The authors of a 2008 study "observed that reported use of infant lotion, infant powder, and infant shampoo were associated with increased infant urine concentrations of [phthalate metabolites] , and this association is strongest in younger infants. These findings suggest that dermal exposures may contribute significantly to phthalate body burden in this population." Though they did not examine health outcomes, they noted that "Young infants are more vulnerable to the potential adverse effects of phthalates given their increased dosage per unit body surface area, metabolic capabilities, and developing endocrine and reproductive systems." [cite web |last=Sathyanarayana |first=Sheela |title=Baby Care Products:Possible sources of infant phthalate exposure PMID 18245401 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/2/e260?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=phthalates&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&volume=121&issue=2%resourcetype=HWCIT |format=full text article |accessdate=2008-02-12]

Some vendors of jelly rubber sex toys advise covering them in condoms when used internally, due to the possible leaching of phthalates. Other vendors do not carry jelly rubber sex toys, in favor of phthalate-free varieties. [ [http://www.willametteweek.com/editorial/3323/8848 Sustainable Kink. A local couple explores the last eco-frontier: sex toys.] by Ethan Smith, "Willamette Week" 18 April 2007.]

Endocrine disruption

In studies of rodents exposed to certain phthalates, high doses have been shown to change hormone levels and cause birth defects. A recent British study showed that the phthalate di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP) or its metabolite monobutyl phthalate (MBP) suppresses steroidogenesis by fetal-type Leydig cells in primates as in rodents. [cite journal | author = Hallmark N, Walker M, McKinnell C, Mahood IK, Scott H, Bayne R, Coutts S, Anderson RA, Greig I, Morris K, Sharpe RM. | title = Effects of monobutyl and di(n-butyl) phthalate in vitro on steroidogenesis and Leydig cell aggregation in fetal testis explants from the rat: comparison with effects in vivo in the fetal rat and neonatal marmoset and in vitro in the human | journal = Environ Health Perspect. | year = 2007 | volume = 115 | issue = 3 | pages = 390–6. | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=17431488 | pmid = 17431488 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.9490 ]

A seminal study by Swan "et al." published in 2005 reported that human phthalate exposure during pregnancy resulted in decreased anogenital distance among baby boys later born, a change that in rodents exposed to phthalates is associated with genital abnormalities. In this study phthalate metabolites were measured in urine samples collected from pregnant women. Upon birth, the genital features and anogenital distance of these women's babies were measured and correlated with the residue levels in the mother's urine. Boys born to mothers with the highest levels of phthalates were 7 times more likely to have a shortened anogenital distance. [ Swan, S.H. et al. 2005. PMID 16079079 An overview of this paper is given in the same volume: Julia R. Barrett, Phthalates and Baby Boys: Potential Disruption of Human Genital Development, "Environ Health Perspect." 2005 Aug; 113(8): A542. [http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/113-8/ss.html] ] While anogenital distance is routinely used as a measure of fetal exposure to endocrine disruptors in animals,cite journal |author=Salazar-Martinez E, Romano-Riquer P, Yanez-Marquez E, Longnecker MP, Hernandez-Avila M |title=Anogenital distance in human male and female newborns: a descriptive, cross-sectional study |journal=Environ Health |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=8 |year=2004 |pmid=15363098 |pmc=521084 |doi=10.1186/1476-069X-3-8 |url=http://www.ehjournal.net/content/3/1/8 |accessdate=2008-06-20] the Swan study is one of only 5 in which the parameter has been assessed in humans. [Cite Journal |last=Postellon |first=Daniel C. |title=Baby Care Products |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volune=121 |issue=6 (June)|pages=1292 |format=letter |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/6/1292 |accessdare=2008-6-3 |doi=10.1542/peds.2008-0401 |volume=121 |pmid=18519505] Another of these studies states that "Whether anogenital distance measurements in humans relate to clinically important outcomes … remains to be determined," [cite journal |author=Romano-Riquer SP, Hernández-Avila M, Gladen BC, Cupul-Uicab LA, Longnecker MP |title=Reliability and determinants of anogenital distance and penis dimensions in male newborns from Chiapas, Mexico |journal=Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=219–28 |year=2007 |pmid=17439530 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3016.2007.00810.x] and a National Toxicology Program expert panel concluded that anogenital distance is a "'novel index' whose relevance in humans 'has not been established,'" and that there is "insufficient evidence in humans" that DEHP causes harm. [Kaiser J. Toxicology. Panel finds no proof that phthalates harm infant reproductive systems Science 2005 Oct 21;310(5747):422 PMID 16239449] Still, the Swan study has been widely cited, and "suggest [s] that male reproductive development in humans could be affected by prenatal exposure to environmentally relevant levels of phthalates."cite journal |author=Tilson HA |title=EHP Papers of the Year, 2008 |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=116 |issue=6 |pages=A234 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18560492 |doi=10.1289/ehp.11684 |url= |accessdate=2008-06-20] Authors of a more recent study of boys with undescended testis suggested that exposure to a combination of phthalates and anti-androgenic pesticides may have contributed to that condition. [cite journal|author=Toppari J, Virtanen H, Skakkebaek NE, Main KM |title=Environmental effects on hormonal regulation of testicular descent |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |year=2006 |issue=1-5 |volume=102 |pages=184–6 |pmid =17049842 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.09.020 ]

In contrast to the Swan study, and earlier study found that "adolescents exposed to significant quantities of DEHP as neonates showed no significant adverse effects on their physical growth and pubertal maturity." [ citeweb| url = http://www.ehponline.org/members/2004/6901/6901.pdf| title = Follow-Up Study of Adolescents Exposed to Di(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) as Neonates on Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) Support| author = Khodayar Rais-Bahram| co-author = Susan Nunez, Mary E. Revenis, Naomi L.C. Luban, and Billie L. Short.| year = 2004| month = 9| accessdate = 2007 - 01 - 25| format = pdf| publisher = Environmental Health Perspectives| pages = 2] This study, however, examined children exposed intravenously to phthalate diesters, and intravenous exposure results in relatively little metabolic conversion of the relatively nontoxic phthalate diester to its toxic monoester metabolite. [cite journal |author=Huber WW, Grasl-Kraupp B, Schulte-Hermann R. |title=Hepatocarcinogenic potential of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in rodents and its implications on human risk |journal=Crit Rev Toxicol |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=365–481 |year=1996 |pmid=8817083 |doi=10.3109/10408449609048302]

Other effects

Large amounts of specific phthalates fed to rodents have been show to damage to their liver and testes, [http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/thirdreport.pdf Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals] , U.S. CDC, July 2005.] and initial rodent studies also indicated hepatocarcinogenity. Following this result, diethyl hexyl phthalate was listed as a possible carcinogen by IARC, EC and WHO. Later studies on primates showed that the mechanism was specific to rodents - humans are resistant to the effect. [http://www.cpsc.gov/library/foia/foia01/os/dinp.pdf p. 87.] The carcinogen classification was subsequently withdrawn.

In 2004, a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a very strong link between allergies in children and the phthalates DEHP and BBzP. [cite journal| author = C.-G. Bornehag, J. Sundell, C. J. Weschler, T. Sigsgaard, B. Lundgren, M. Hasselgren, L. Hägerhed-Engman| title = The Association between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dust: A Nested Case–Control Study| journal = Environ Health Perspect.| year = 2004| volume = 112| issue = 13| pages = 1319–1340| doi = 10.1289/ehp.7187] The first systematic review of the evidence relating phthalates to asthma found evidence of association between phthalates in the home and asthma especially in children, but this evidence was limited by imprecise data on exact levels of exposure. Phthalates migrate from PVC plastics and into the dust, where they may be inhaled. [http://www.ehponline.org/members/2008/10846/10846.html The Role of Exposure to Phthalates from Polyvinyl Chloride Products in the Development of Asthma and Allergies: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis] ]

In 2007, a cross-sectional study of U.S. males concluded that urine concentrations of four phthalate metabolites correlate with waist size and three phthalate metabolites correlate with the cellular resistance to insulin, a precursor to Type II diabetes. The authors note the need for follow-up longitudinal studies, [cite journal|author=Stahlhut RW, van Wijngaarden E, Dye TD, Cook S, Swan SH. |title=Concentrations of urinary phthalate metabolites are associated with increased waist circumference and insulin resistance in adult u.s. Males |journal= Environ Health Perspect |year=2007 |issue=6 |volume=115 |pages=876–82 |pmid =17589594 ] as waist size is known to correlate with insulin resistance.

Legal status

European Union

The use of some phthalates has been restricted in the European Union for use in children's toys since 1999. [ [http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/99/829&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en Ban of phthalates in childcare articles and toys] , press release IP/99/829, 10 November 1999] DEHP, BBP, and DBP are restricted for all toys; DINP, DIDP, and DNOP are restricted only in toys that can be taken into the mouth. The restriction states that the amount of phthalates may not be greater than 0.1% mass percent of the plasticized part of the toy. These phthalates are allowed at any concentration in other products and other phthalates are not restricted.

There are no other specific restrictions in the European Union although draft proposals have been tabled for the inclusion of BBP, DEHP and DBP on the Candidate list of Substances for Authorisation under REACH. [ [http://echa.europa.eu/consultations/authorisation/svhc/svhc_cons_en.asp ECHA Website - Proposal for identification of Substances of Very High Concern ] ] Fourteen other countries, including Japan, Argentina, and Mexico, have also banned phthalates from children's toys. [ [http://www.center4research.org/phthalates.html Phthalates and Children's Products ] ] The Dutch office of Greenpeace UK sought to encourage the European Union to ban sex toys that contained phthalates. [ [http://www.news24.com/News24/World/News/0,,2-10-1462_1995778,00.html News24] ]

United States

Some phthalates will be restricted in the U.S. state of California (for children's toys) starting in 2009. [ [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/85/i43/8543news4.html California Bans Phthalates In Toys For Children] , Bette Hileman, "Chemical and Engineering News", OCT. 22, 2007, P. 12.] In Connecticut, state legislators are considering a bill that would ban phthalates in children's products. [Citation
last = Weil
first = William
title = Debate In A Bottle
newspaper = Hartford Courant
year = 2008
date = April 23, 2008
url = http://www.courant.com/features/lifestyle/green/hc-bottled.art0apr23,0,5170837.story
format = Dead link|date=June 2008 – ^{[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3AWeil+intitle%3ADebate+In+A+Bottle&as_publication=&as_ylo=2008&as_yhi=2008&btnG=Search Scholar search]} .] Following California, the US Congress passed a bill banning 6 phthalates from toys nationally, effective beginning sometime in 2009. [ [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-toxin29-2008jul29,0,1507492.story Congress moves to ban phthalates from toys LA Times] ] President Bush signed the bill into law in August 2008. [cite web|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/president-signs-phthalate-ban-law/story.aspx?guid=%7B0DB232E5-4ABB-4489-A914-D37301E8924C%7D&dist=hppr|title=President Signs Phthalate Ban Into Law|date=August 14, 2008|publisher=MarketWatch|accessdate=2008-08-15]

Identification in plastics

Phthalates are used in some but not all PVC formulations, and there are no labeling requirements for phthalates specifically. PVC plastics are typically used for various containers and hard packaging, medical tubing and bags, and are labelled "Type 3" for recycling reasons. However, the presence of phthalates rather than other plasticizers is not marked on PVC items, and thus it is not possible to identify phthalate-containing items by markings alone.

Chemical analysis, for example by gas chromatography, can establish the presence of phtalates.

ee also

* Xenoestrogen

References

Further reading

*cite journal |author=Hauser R, Meeker JD, Singh NP, "et al" |title=DNA damage in human sperm is related to urinary levels of phthalate monoester and oxidative metabolites |journal=Hum. Reprod. |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=688–95 |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17090632 |doi=10.1093/humrep/del428 |url=http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17090632
*cite journal | author=Susan M. Duty, Narendra P. Singh, Manori J. Silva, Dana B. Barr, John W. Brock, Louise Ryan, Robert F. Herrick, David C. Christiani, and Russ Hauser | title= [http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2003/5756/5756.html The relationship between environmental exposures to phthalates and DNA damage in human sperm using the neutral comet assay] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | volume=111 | issue=July | year=2003 | pages=1164–1169 [http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2003/5756/abstract.html Abstract]
*cite journal | author=Shanna H. Swan, Katharina M. Main, Fan Liu, Sara L. Stewart, Robin L. Kruse, Antonia M. Calafat, Catherine S. Mao, J. Bruce Redmon, Christine L. Ternand, Shannon Sullivan, J. Lynn Teague, and the Study for Future Families Research Team | title= [http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2005/8100/8100.pdf Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | volume=In press | issue= | year=2005 | pages= [http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8100 Abstract] | doi=10.1289/ehp.8100 Abstract]
*Swan, S.H. 2004. Phthalates in pregnant women and children. e.hormone 2004 conference. October 27-30. New Orleans.
*Swan, S.H. "et al." 2005. Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure. "Environmental Health Perspectives" 113:1056--1061.
*cite journal
author = Barbara J. Davis, Tara Lovekamp-Swant
title = Mechanisms of Phthalate Ester Toxicity in the Female Reproductive System
journal = Environmental Health Perspectives
year = 2003
volume = 111
issue =
pages =
doi = 10.1289/ehp.5658
*cite journal
author = L. Earl Gray, Jr.*,1, Joseph Ostby*, Johnathan Furr*, Matthew Price*, D. N. Rao Veeramachaneni{dagger} and Louise Parks
title = Perinatal Exposure to the Phthalates DEHP, BBP, and DINP, but Not DEP, DMP, or DOTP, Alters Sexual Differentiation of the Male Rat
journal = Toxicological Sciences
year = 2000
volume = 58
issue =
pages = 350-365
url = http://171.66.120.171/cgi/reprint/58/2/350
*cite journal
author = Joel A. Tickner, ScD 1 *, Ted Schettler, MD, MPH 2, Tee Guidotti, MD, MPH 3, Michael McCally, MD, MPH 4, Mark Rossi, MA 5
title = Health risks posed by use of Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in PVC medical devices: A critical review
journal = American Journal of Industrial Medicine
year = 2001
volume = 39
issue = 1
pages = 100–111
doi = 10.1002/1097-0274(200101)39:1<100::AID-AJIM10>3.0.CO;2-Q
*cite journal
author = Shanna H. Swan,1 Katharina M. Main,2 Fan Liu,3 Sara L. Stewart,3 Robin L. Kruse,3 Antonia M. Calafat,4 Catherine S. Mao,5 J. Bruce Redmon,6 Christine L. Ternand,7 Shannon Sullivan,8 and J. Lynn Teague9
title = Decrease in Anogenital Distance among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure
journal = Environmental Health Perspectives
year = 2005
volume = 113
issue = 8
pages = 1056–1061
doi = 10.1289/ehp.8100
*cite journal
author = Michael C. Kohn; Frederick Parham; Scott A. Masten; Christopher J. Portier; Michael D. Shelby; John W. Brock; Larry L. Needham
title = Human Exposure Estimates for Phthalates
journal = Environmental Health Perspectives
year = 2000
volume = 108
issue = 10
pages = A440–A442
url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0091-6765%28200010%29108%3A10%3CA440%3AHEEFP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5
*cite journal
author = Carl-Gustaf Bornehag,1,2,3 Jan Sundell,2 Charles J. Weschler,2,4 Torben Sigsgaard,5 Björn Lundgren,1 Mikael Hasselgren,3 and Linda Hägerhed-Engman1
title = The Association between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dust: A Nested Case–Control Study
journal = Environmental Health Perspectives
year = 2004
volume = 112
issue = 14
pages = 1393–1397
doi = 10.1289/ehp.7187
*cite journal
author = Richard W Stahlhut, Edwin van Wijngaarden, Timothy D Dye, Stephen Cook and Shanna H Swan
title = Concentrations of Urinary Phthalate Metabolites are Associated with Increased Waist Circumference and Insulin Resistance in Adult U.S. Males
journal = Environmental Health Perspectives
year = 2007
volume =
issue =
pages =
doi = 10.1289/ehp.9882

External links

Media

*NOW on PBS: [http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/412/index.html Phthalates and Toxic Toys?] Why does the United States allow children to play with toys some scientists say may cause infertility in boys?
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=16616951 Interview with Mark Schapiro] from Fresh Air (NPR) ; November 26, 2007
* [http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/pr/news/story.cfm?id=1405 Phthalates Now Linked to Fat, Related Health Risks] , University of Rochester Medical Center, March 14 2007.
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7440 New Scientist] and [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000240B8-30B1-1296-B0B183414B7F0000&ref=sciam&chanID=sa003 Scientific American] articles on Environmental Health Perspectives report; see Research.
* [http://www.tinynibbles.com/unsafe.html Unsafe Sex Toys] with Violet Blue
* [http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2005/12/06/gertz/ Naughty by Nature: Ever thought about the toxins in your sex toys?] by Emily Gertz, "Grist magazine", 6 December 2005
* [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/83/8346specialtychem5.html Panel Ranks Risks of Common Phthalate: Additional research underscores concerns about DEHP that were first expressed in 2000 report] , Bette Hileman, "Chemical and Engineering News", NOVEMBER 14, 2005, 83(46):32–36.
* [http://www.usrecallnews.com/2008/08/congress-bans-toxic-phthalates-from-toys.html Congress Bans Toxic Phthalates from Toys] , Everett Sizemore, "US Recall News", August 13, 2008.

Research

* [http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2004/7187/7187.html The Association between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dust: A Nested Case-Control Study]
* [http://ecb.jrc.it/DOCUMENTS/Existing-Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/SUMMARY/didpsum041.pdf DIDP] , [http://ecb.jrc.it/DOCUMENTS/Existing-Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/SUMMARY/dinpsum046.pdf DINP] , and [http://ecb.jrc.it/DOCUMENTS/Existing-Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/SUMMARY/dibutylphthalatesum003.pdf DBP] - Risk Assessment Reports by the [http://ecb.jrc.it European Chemicals Bureau] (ECB).

Sources suggesting low/no health risks

* [http://www.phthalates.com Phthalates Information Centre] ; an initiative of the European Council for Plasticisers and Intermediates (ECPI)
* [http://www.phthalates.org/ Phthalates Information Center] ; from the American Chemistry Council, Inc.
* [http://www.rppi.org/peg2.html Phthalates and Human Health] , by Kenneth Green, D.Env.; Director of the Environmental Program at Reason Public Policy Institute, Reason Foundation, 2000