Martian Gullies

Martian Gullies

First discovered on images from Mars Global Surveyor, Martian gullies may be the site of recent liquid water. Gullies occur on steep slopes, especially on the walls of craters. Gullies are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters. Moreover, they lie on top of sand dunes which themselves are considered to be quite young. Usually, each gully has an alcove, channel, and apron. Some studies have found that gullies occur on slopes that face all directions,[1] others have found that the greater number of gullies are found on poleward facing slopes, especially from 30-44 S.[2] Although thousands have been found, they appear to be restricted to only certain areas of the planet. Most occur 30 degrees poleward in each hemisphere with greater numbers in the southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere, they have been found in Arcadia Planitia, Tempe Terra, Acidalia Planitia, and Utopia Planitia.[3] In the south, high concentrations are found on the northern edge of Argyre basin, in northern Noachis Terra, and along the walls of the Hellas outflow channels.[3]

Contents

How were they formed?

After being discovered many ideas were put forward to explain the gullies.[4] However, as in the usual progression of science, some ideas came to be more plausible than others when more observations were made, when other instruments were used, and when statistical analysis was employed. Even through some gullies resembled debris flows on Earth, it was found that many gullies were on slopes that were not steep enough for typical debris flows. Calculations showed that the pressure and temperatures were not right for liquid carbon dioxide. Moreover, the winding shape of the gullies suggested that the flows were slower than what would be produced in debris flows or eruptions of liquid carbon dioxide. Liquid carbon dioxide would sort of explode out of the ground in the thin Martian atmosphere. Because the liquid carbon dioxide would throw material over 100 meters, the channels should be discontinuous, but they are not.[5] Eventually, the most popular theories came to involve liquid water coming from an aquifer, from melting at the base of old glaciers (or snowpacks), or from the melting of ice in the ground when the climate was warmer.[5][6] Because of the good possibility that liquid water was involved with their formation and that they could be very young, scientists are excited. Maybe the gullies are where we should go to find life. However, more studies open up other posibilities; a study released in October 2010, contends that some gullies, the ones on sand dunes, may be produced by a build up of solid carbon dioxide during cold winter months.[7][8]

Aquifers

Most of the gully alcove heads occur at the same level, just as one would expect if water came out of an aquifer. Various measurements and calculations show that liquid water could exist in aquifers at the usual depths where gullies begin.[5] One variation of this model is that rising hot magma could have melted ice in the ground and caused water to flow in aquifers. Aquifers are layers that allow water to flow. They may consist of porous sandstone. The aquifer layer would be perched on top of another layer that prevents water from going down (in geological terms it would be called impermeable). Because water in an aquifer is prevented from going down, the only direction the trapped water can flow is horizontally. Eventually, water could flow out onto the surface when the aquifer reaches a break—like a crater wall. The resulting flow of water could erode the wall to create gullies.[9] Aquifers are quite common on Earth. A good example is "Weeping Rock" in Zion National Park Utah.[10] However, the idea that aquifers formed the gullies does not explain the ones found on isolated peaks, like knobs and the central peaks of craters. Also, a type of gully seems to be present on sand dunes. Aquifers need a wide collecting area which is not present on sand dunes or on isolated slopes. Even though most of the original gullies that were seen seemed to come from the same layer in the slope, some exceptions to this pattern have been found.[11] Examples of gullies coming from different levels is shown below in the image of Lohse Crater and the image of gullies in Ross Crater.

Snowpacks

As for the next theory, much of the surface of Mars is covered by a thick smooth mantle that is thought to be a mixture of ice and dust.[12] [13] [14] This ice-rich mantle, a few yards thick, smoothes the land, but in places it has a bumpy texture, resembling the surface of a basketball. The mantle may be like a glacier and under certain conditions the ice that is mixed in the mantle could melt and flow down the slopes and make gullies.[15] [16] Calculations show that a third of a mm of runoff can be produced each day for 50 days of each Martian year even under current conditions.[17] Because there are few craters on this mantle, the mantle is relatively young. An excellent view of this mantle is shown below in the picture of the Ptolemaeus Crater Rim, as seen by HiRISE.[18]

The ice-rich mantle may be the result of climate changes.[19] Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When Mars is at its greatest tilt or obliquity, up to 2 cm of ice could be removed from the summer ice cap and be deposited at midlatitudes. This movement of water could last for several thousand years and create a snow layer of up to around 10 meters thick.[20][21] When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulating the remaining ice.[22]

When the slopes, orientations, and elevations of thousands of gullies were compared, clear patterns emerged from the data. Measurements of altitudes and slopes of gullies support the idea that snowpacks or glaciers are associated with gullies. Steeper slopes have more shade which would preserve snow.[23] Higher elevations have far fewer gullies because ice would tend to sublimate more in the thin air of the higher altitude. For example, Thaumasia quadrangle is heavily cratered with many steep slopes. It is in the right latitude range, but its altitude is so high that there is not enough pressure to keep ice from sublimating (going directly from a solid to a gas); hence it does not have gullies.[24][25] A large study done with several years worth of data from Mars Global Surveyor showed that there is a tendency for gullies to be on poleward facing slopes; these slopes have more shade that would keep snow from melting and allow large snowpacks to accumulate.[23]

In general, it is now believed that during periods of high obliquity, the ice caps will melt causing higher temperature, pressure, and moisture. The moisture will then accumulate as snow in midlatitudes, especially in the more shaded areas--pole facing, steep slopes. At a certain time of the year, sunlight will melt snow with the resulting water producing gullies.

Melting of surface ice

The third theory might be possible since climate changes may be enough to simply allow ice in the ground to melt and thus form the gullies. During a warmer climate, the first few meters of ground could thaw and produce a "debris flow" similar to those on the dry and cold Greenland east coast.[26] Since the gullies occur on steep slopes only a small decrease of the shear strength of the soil particles is needed to begin the flow. Small amounts of liquid water from melted ground ice could be enough.[27][28][dead link]

How changing tilt affects the climate

It is generally believed that a few million years ago, the tilt of the axis of Mars was 45 degrees instead of its present 25 degrees.[29] Its tilt, also called obliquity, varies greatly because its two tiny moons cannot stabilize it, like our relatively large moon does to the Earth.[30][31] During such periods of high tilt, the summer rays of the sun strike the mid-latitude crater surfaces straight on, thus the surface remains dry.

Note that at high tilt, the ice caps at the poles disappear, the atmosphere thickness, and the moisture in the atmosphere goes up. These conditions cause snow and frost to appear on the surface. However, any snow that falls at night and during the cooler parts of the day disappears when the day warms.

Things are quite different as fall approaches, for the pole-facing slopes remain in the shade all day. Shade causes snow to accumulate through the fall and winter seasons.


In the spring at certain point, the ground will be warm enough and the air pressure high enough for liquid water to form at certain times of the day. There may be sufficient water to produce gullies by erosion.[16] Or, the water may soak into the ground, and later move down as a debris flow. Gullies on Earth formed by this process resemble Martian gullies. The great changes in the tilt of Mars explain both the strong relationship of gullies to certain latitude bands and the fact that the vast majority of gullies exist on shady, pole-facing slopes. Models support the idea that pressure/temperature changes during high obliquity times are enough to allow liquid water to be stable in places where gullies are common.

Gullies in Phaethontis quadrangle

The Phaethontis quadrangle is the location of many gullies that may be due to recent flowing water. Some are found in the Gorgonum Chaos[32][33] and in many craters near the large craters Copernicus and Newton (Martian crater).[34][35]

Eridania quadrangle Gullies

Argyre quadrangle Gullies

Thaumasia quadrangle Gullies

See also

References

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  2. ^ Dickson, J; Head, J; Kreslavsky, M (2007). "Martian gullies in the southern mid-latitudes of Mars: Evidence for climate-controlled formation of young fluvial features based upon local and global topography" (PDF). Icarus 188: 315–323. Bibcode 2007Icar..188..315D. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.11.020. http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3138.pdf. 
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  7. ^ NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Study links fresh Mars gullies to carbon dioxide." ScienceDaily 30 October 2010. 10 March 2011
  8. ^ Diniega, S.; Byrne, S.; Bridges, N. T.; Dundas, C. M.; McEwen, A. S. (2010). "Seasonality of present-day Martian dune-gully activity". Geology 38: 1047. doi:10.1130/G31287.1. 
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  10. ^ Harris, A and E. Tuttle. 1990. Geology of National Parks. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa
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  15. ^ Martian gullies could be scientific gold mines. Leonard David, 11/13/2006.
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  21. ^ Jakosky, Bruce M.; Henderson, Bradley G.; Mellon, Michael T. (1995). "Chaotic obliquity and the nature of the Martian climate". Journal of Geophysical Research 100: 1579–1584. Bibcode 1995JGR...100.1579J. doi:10.1029/94JE02801. 
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  24. ^ Kreslavsky, Mikhail A.; Head, James W. (2000). "Kilometer-scale roughness of Mars: Results from MOLA data analysis" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 105: 26695–26712. Bibcode 2000JGR...10526695K. doi:10.1029/2000JE001259. http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/2447.pdf. 
  25. ^ Hecht, M (2002). "Metastability of liquid water on Mars" (PDF). Icarus 156: 373–386. Bibcode 2002Icar..156..373H. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6794. http://www.geo.brown.edu/geocourses/geo292/papers/Hecht2002.pdf. 
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  30. ^ Jakosky, Bruce M.; Carr, Michael H. (1985). "Possible precipitation of ice at low latitudes of Mars during periods of high obliquity". Nature 315 (6020): 559–561. Bibcode 1985Natur.315..559J. doi:10.1038/315559a0. 
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  32. ^ Gorgonum Chaos Mesas (HiRISE Image ID: PSP_004071_1425
  33. ^ Gullies on Gorgonum Chaos Mesas (HiRISE Image ID: PSP_001948_1425)
  34. ^ Gullies in Newton Crater (HiRISE Image ID: PSP_004163_1375)
  35. ^ U.S. department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey, Topographic Map of the Eastern Region of Mars M 15M 0/270 2AT, 1991

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