Yuri Knorozov

Infobox Scientist
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birth_date = November 191922
birth_place = Kharkov
death_date = March 31 1999
death_place = St. Petersburg
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nationality = Russian
ethnicity =
field = linguist
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known_for = Maya script
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Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov (alternatively, Knorosov; Russian "Юрий Валентинович Кнорозов"; b. November 191922 — d. March 31 1999) was a Russian linguist, epigrapher and ethnographer, who is particularly renowned for the pivotal role his research played in the decipherment of the Maya script, the writing system used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica.

Early life

Knorozov was born in a village near Kharkov in present-day Ukraine, at that time the capital of the newly formed Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. [The Ukrainian SSR was incorporated as a constituent republic of the Soviet Union on December 30, 1922, barely a month after Knorozov's birth. Among other momentous changes, the Republic was also suffering from the after-effects of the Russian famine of 1921.] His parents were Russian intellectuals, and his paternal grandmother had been a stage actress of national repute in Armenia. [Under the pseudonym "Мари Забель" ("Mary Zabel"). See People's History (n.d.), Drevnyaya MezoAmerika (2000).]

At school, the young Yuri was a difficult and somewhat eccentric student, who made indifferent progress in a number of subjects and was almost expelled for poor and wilful behaviour. However, it became clear that he was academically bright with an inquisitive temperament; he was an accomplished violinist, wrote romantic poetry and could draw with accuracy and attention to detail. ["Ibid."]

In 1940 at the age of 17, Knorozov left Kharkov for Moscow where he commenced undergraduate studies in the newly created Department of Ethnology at Moscow State University's faculty of History. He initially specialised in Egyptology. [MSU's Department of Ethnology was created only the year before, in 1939 (see [http://www.hist.msu.ru/English/departments/Ethn/info.htm "Department of Ethnology"] , MSU History Faculty. See also Hammond (1999) and People's History (n.d.)]

Military service and the "Berlin Affair"

Knorozov's study plans were soon interrupted by the outbreak of World War II hostilities along the Eastern Front in mid-1941. From 1943 to 1945 Knorozov served his term in the Soviet Union's "Great Patriotic War" in the Red Army as an artillery spotter. [ See Kettunen (1998a) and Drevnyaya MezoAmerika (2000) for dates. Coe (1992:146) gives his unit as the 58th Heavy Artillery, however "Drevnyaya MezoAmerika" alternatively gives this as the 158th. This latter source also notes Knorozov himself did not participate in the capture of Berlin.]

At the closing stages of the war in May 1945, Knorozov and his unit supported the push of the Red Army vanguard into Berlin. It was here, sometime in the aftermath of the Battle of Berlin, that Knorozov is supposed to have by chance retrieved a book which would spark his later interest in and association with deciphering the Maya script. In their retelling the details of this episode have acquired a somewhat folkloric quality ("...one of the greatest legends of the history of Maya research"; Kettunen 1998b).

According to the version of the anecdote which became widely reproduced (particularly following the 1992 publication of Michael Coe's "Breaking the Maya Code" [See for example Gould (1998).] ), while stationed in Berlin he came across the National Library while it was ablaze. Somehow Knorozov managed to retrieve from the burning library a book, which remarkably enough turned out to be a rare edition containing reproductions of the three Maya codices which were then known (the Dresden, Madrid and Paris codices). [The work in question was Villacorta and Villacorta's "Códices mayas", published 1930 in Guatemala City. These surviving pre-Columbian codices (screen-fold books) contain a mixture of astronomical, calendric and ritual data, and are illustrated with depictions of deities, animals and other scenes. Crucially, many of the illustrations are also accompanied with captions in the Maya script, which would provide a basis for Knorozov and others to begin in determining the phonetic values represented by the glyphs.] Knorozov is said to have taken this book back with him to Moscow at the end of the war, where its examination would form the basis for his later pioneering research into the Maya script.

However, in an interview conducted a year before his death, Knorozov provided a different version of the anecdote. He explained (Kettunen 1998a, 1998b) that:

"Unfortunately it was a misunderstanding: I told about it [finding the books in the library in Berlin] to my colleague Michael Coe, but he didn't get it right. There simply wasn't any fire in the library. And the books that were in the library, were in boxes to be sent somewhere else. The fascist command had packed them, and since they didn't have time to move them anywhere, they were simply taken to Moscow. I didn't see any fire there."

The "National Library" mentioned in these accounts is not specifically identified by name, but at the time the library then known as the "Preußische Staatsbibliothek" (Prussian State Library) had that function. Situated on Unter den Linden and today known as the Berlin State Library ("Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin"), this was the largest scientific library of Germany. During the war, most of its collection had been dispersed over some 30 separate storage places across the country for safe-keeping. After the war much of the collection was returned to the library, however a substantial number of volumes which had been sent for storage in the eastern part of the country were never recovered, with upwards of 350,000 volumes destroyed and a further 300,000 missing. Of these, many ended up in Soviet and Polish library collections, and in particular at the Russian State Library in Moscow. [cite web |author=Berlin State Library staff |title=Die ausgelagerten Bestände der Staatsbibliothek in Osteuropa |url=http://staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/deutsch/bestaende/verlagerte_bestaende.html |accessdate=2006-08-01 de icon]

Resumption of studies

In the autumn of 1945 after the war, Knorozov returned to Moscow State University to complete his undergraduate courses at the department of Ethnography. He resumed his research into Egyptology, and also undertook comparative cultural studies in other fields such as Sinology. He displayed a particular interest and aptitude for the study of ancient languages and writing systems, especially hieroglyphs, and he also read in medieval Japanese and Arabic literature. [Drevnyaya MezoAmerika (2000).]

While still an undergraduate at MSU, Knorozov found work at the N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology [Named after the noted 19th century ethnologist and anthropologist Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai] (or IEA), part of the prestigious Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Knorozov's later research findings would be published by the IEA under its imprint.

As part of his ethnographic curriculum Knorozov spent several months as a member of a field expedition to the Central Asian Russian republics of the Uzbek and Turkmen SSRs (what had formerly been the Khorezm SSR, and would much later become the independent nations of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan following the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union). On this expedition his ostensible focus was to study the effects of Russian expansionary activities and "modern" developments upon the nomadic ethnic groups, of what was a far-flung frontier world of the Soviet state.

At this point the focus of his research had not yet been drawn on the Maya script. This would change in 1947, when at the instigation of his professor, Knorozov wrote his dissertation on the "de Landa alphabet", a record produced by the 16th century Spanish Bishop Diego de Landa in which he claimed to have transliterated the Spanish alphabet into corresponding Maya hieroglyphs, based on input from Maya informants. De Landa, who during his posting to Yucatán had overseen the destruction of all the codices from the Maya civilization he could find, reproduced his alphabet in a work ("Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán") intended to justify his actions once he had been placed on trial when recalled to Spain. The original document had disappeared, and this work was unknown until 1862 when an abridged copy was discovered in the archives of the Spanish Royal Academy by the French scholar, Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg.

Since de Landa's "alphabet" seemed to be contradictory and unclear (e.g., multiple variations were given for some of the letters, and some of the symbols were not known in the surviving inscriptions), previous attempts to use this as a key for deciphering the Maya writing system had not been successful.

Key research

In 1952 Knorozov published a paper which was later to prove to be a seminal work in the field ("Drevnyaya pis’mennost’ Tsentral’noy Ameriki", or "Ancient Writing of Central America".) The general thesis of this paper put forward the observation that early scripts such as ancient Egyptian and Cuneiform which were generally or formerly thought to be predominantly logographic or even purely ideographic in nature, in fact contained a significant phonetic component. That is to say, rather than the symbols representing only or mainly whole words or concepts, many symbols in fact represented the sound elements of the language in which they were written, and had alphabetic or syllabic elements as well, which if understood could further their decipherment. By this time, this was largely known and accepted for several of these, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs (the decipherment of which was famously commenced by Jean-François Champollion in 1822 using the tri-lingual Rosetta Stone artefact); however the prevailing view was that Mayan did not have such features. Knorozov's studies in comparative linguistics drew him to the conclusion that the Mayan script should be no different from the others, and that purely logographic or ideographic scripts were not actually so.

Knorozov's key insight was to treat the Maya glyphs represented in de Landa's alphabet not as an alphabet, but rather as a syllabary. He was perhaps not the first to propose a syllabic basis for the script, but his arguments and evidence were the most compelling to date. He maintained that when de Landa had commanded of his informant to write the equivalent of the Spanish letter "b" (for example), the Maya scribe actually produced the glyph which corresponded to the "syllable", /bay/, as spoken by de Landa. Knorozov did not actually put forward many new transcriptions based on his analysis, nevertheless he maintained that this approach was the key to understanding the script. In effect, the de Landa "alphabet" was to become almost the "Rosetta stone" of Mayan decipherment.

A further critical principle put forward by Knorozov was that of synharmony. According to this, Mayan words or syllables which had the form consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) were often to be represented by two glyphs, each representing a CV-syllable (i.e., CV-CV). In the reading, the vowel of the second was meant to be ignored, leaving the reading (CVC) as intended. The principle also stated that when choosing the second CV glyph, it would be one where the vowel sound matched that of the first glyph syllable. Later analysis has proved this to be largely correct.

Critical reactions to his work

Upon the publication of this work from a then hardly known scholar, Knorozov and his thesis came under some severe and at times dismissive criticism. J. Eric S. Thompson, the noted British scholar regarded by all as the leading Mayanist of his day, led the attack. Thompson's views at that time were solidly anti-phonetic, and his own large body of detailed research had already fleshed-out a view that the Maya inscriptions did not record their actual history, and that the glyphs were founded on ideographic principles. His view was the prevailing one in the field, and many other scholars followed suit.

The situation was further complicated by Knorozov's paper appearing during the height of the Cold War, and many were able to dismiss his paper as being founded on misguided Marxist-Leninist ideology and polemic. Indeed, in keeping with the mandatory practices of the time, Knorozov's paper was prefaced by a foreword written by the journal's editor which contained digressions and propagandist comments extolling the State-sponsored approach by which Knorozov had succeeded where Western scholarship had failed. However, despite claims to the contrary by several of Knorozov's detractors, Knorozov himself never did include such polemic in his writings.

Knorozov persisted with his publications in spite of the criticism and rejection of many Mayanists of the time. He was perhaps shielded to some extent from the ramifications of peer disputation, since his position and standing at the institute was not adversely influenced by criticism from Western academics.

Progress of decipherment

Knorozov further improved his decipherment technique in his 1963 monograph "The Writing of the Maya Indians" [ru icon [http://mesoamerica.narod.ru/knorozov.html Yuri Knorozov] ] and published translations of Mayan manuscripts in his 1975 work "Maya Hieroglyphic Manuscripts".

During the 1960s, other Mayanists and researchers began to expand upon Knorozov's ideas. Their further field-work and examination of the extant inscriptions began to indicate that actual Maya history was recorded in the stelae inscriptions, and not just calendric and astronomical information. The Russian-born but American-resident scholar Tatiana Proskouriakoff was foremost in this work, eventually convincing Thompson and other doubters that historical events were recorded in the script.

Other early supporters of the phonetic approach championed by Knorozov included Michael D. Coe and David Kelley, and whilst initially they were in a clear minority, more and more supporters came to this view as further evidence and research progressed.

Through the rest of the decade and into the next, Proskouriakoff and others continued to develop the theme, and using Knorozov's results and other approaches began to piece together some decipherments of the script. A major breakthrough came during the first round table or Mesa Redonda conference at the Maya site of Palenque in 1973, when using the syllabic approach those present (mostly) deciphered what turned out to be a list of former rulers of that particular Maya city-state.

Subsequent decades saw many further such advances, to the point now where quite a significant portion of the surviving inscriptions can be read. Most Mayanists and accounts of the decipherment history apportion much of the credit to the impetus and insight provided by Knorozov's contributions, to a man who had not as yet set foot outside of his native Russia, but had still been able to make important contributions to the understanding of this distant, ancient civilisation.

Later life

As his theories became more widely known, Knorozov was in 1956 granted leave to attend an international convention of Mesoamerican scholars in Copenhagen. This was to be his one and only venture outside the Soviet Union for quite some time, since as a Soviet academic, Knorozov was subject to the usual restrictions placed on travel outside of the Soviet Union. Over subsequent years western Mayanists needed to travel to Leningrad to meet up with him. It was not until 1990 that he was eventually able to leave Russia again and finally visit the ancient Maya homelands and archaeological sites in Mexico and Guatemala. This was at the invitation of the Guatemalan President Marco Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo, at a time of improved diplomatic relations between the two countries. Cerezo presented him with an honorary medal, and Knorozov was able to extend his stay in the region, visiting several of the important Maya sites such as Tikal. However, shortly after Vinicio Cerezo left office, Knorozov received threats from suspected right-wing militarist groups who were antagonistic to the indigenous Mayan peoples, and was forced to go into hiding and then leave the country.

The Government of Mexico awarded him the prestigious "Orden del Águila Azteca" (Order of the Aztec Eagle), the highest decoration awarded by Mexico to non-citizens, which was presented to him at a ceremony at the Mexican Embassy in Moscow on November 30, 1994.

Knorozov had broad interest in, and contributed to, other investigative fields such as archaeology, semiotics, human migration to the Americas and the evolution of the mind. However, it is his contributions to the field of Maya studies for which he is best remembered.

In his very last years, Knorozov is also knownFact|date=February 2007 to have pointed to a place in the United States as the likely location of Chicomoztoc, the ancestral land from which --according to ancient documents and accounts considered mythical by a sizable number of scholars-- Indian peoples now living in Mexico are said to have come.

Knorozov died in St. Petersburg on March 31, 1999, of pneumonia in the corridors of a city hospital, just before he was due to receive the honorary Proskouriakoff Award from Harvard University.

List of publications

An incomplete listing of Knorozov's papers, conference reports and other publications, divided by subject area and type. Note that several of those listed are re-editions and/or translations of earlier papers. [Compiled from "Bibliografía Mesoamericana", with additions from Hammond (1999) and Coe (1992).]

Maya-related

;Conference papers
*cite conference |year=1955 |title=A brief summary of the studies of the ancient Maya hieroglyphic writing in the Soviet Union |booktitle=Reports of the Soviet Delegations at the 10th International Congress of Historical Science in Rome |location=Moscow |publisher=Akademia Nauk SSSR |edition=(Authorized English translation)
*cite conference | year=1956 | title=Kratkie itogi izucheniia drevnei pis'mennosti malia v Sovetskom Soiuze | booktitle=Proceedings of the International Congress of Historical Sciences (Rome, 1955) |location=Rome |pages=pp.343–364
*cite conference | year=1958 | title=New data on the Maya written language | booktitle=Proc. 32nd International Congress of Americanists, (Copenhagen, 1956) |location=Copenhagen |pages=pp.467–475
*cite conference | year=1959 | title=La lengua de los textos jeroglificos mayas | booktitle=Proceedings of the International Congress of Americanists (33rd session, San José, 1958) |location=San José, Costa Rica | pages=pp.573–579
*cite conference | year=1970 | title=Le Panthéon des anciens Maya | booktitle=Proceedings of the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (7th session, Moscow, 1964). |location=Moscow | pages=pp.126–232;Journal articles
*cite journal | year=1952 | title="Drevnyaya pis’mennost’ Tsentral’noy Ameriki." (Ancient Writings of Central America) | journal=Sovetskaya Etnografiya | volume=3 |issue=2| pages=pp.100–118
*cite journal | year=1955 | title="Pis'mennost drevnikh maiia." (Written Language of the Ancient Maya) | journal=Sovetskaya Etnografiya | volume=1| pages=pp.94–125
*cite journal | year=1956 | title=New data on the Maya written language | journal=Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris |volume=45 | pages=pp.209–217
*cite journal | year=1958 | title="Estudio de los jeroglíficos mayas en la U.R.S.S." (The Study of Maya hieroglyphics in the USSR) | journal=Khana, Revista municipal de artes y letras (La Paz, Bolivia) |volume=2 |issue=17-18 | pages=pp.183–189
*cite journal | year=1958 | title=The problem of the study of the Maya hieroglyphic writing | journal=American Antiquity | volume=23 |issue=3 | pages=pp.248–291
*cite journal |year=1962 |title=Problem of deciphering Mayan writing |journal=Diogènes (Montreal) |volume=40 |pages=pp.122–128
*cite journal |year=1963 |title=Machine decipherment of Maya script |journal=Soviet Anthropology and Archeology |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=pp.43–50
*cite journal |year=1963 |title="Aplicación de las matematicas al estudio lingüistico" (Application of mathematics to linguistic studies) |journal=Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City) |volume=3 |pages=pp.169–185
*cite journal |year=1965 |title="Principios para descifrar los escritos mayas." (Principles for deciphering Maya writing) |journal= Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City) |volume=5 |pages=pp.153–188
*cite journal |year=1968 |title="Investigación formal de los textos jeroglíficos mayas." (Formal investigations of Maya hieroglyphic texts) |journal= Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City) |volume=7 |pages=pp.153–188
*cite journal | year=1973 | title=Zametki o kaldare Maia: 365-dnevnyi god | journal=Sovetskaya Etnografiya | volume=1| pages=pp.70–80
*cite journal | year=1974 | title=Notas sobre el calendario maya; el monumento E de Tres Zapotes | journal=América Latina; estudios de científicos soviéticos | volume=3| pages=pp.125–140
*cite journal | year=1986 | title=Acerca de las relaciones precolombinas entre América y el Viejo Mundo | journal=América Latina; estudios de científicos soviéticos | volume=1| pages=pp.84–98;Books
*cite book | year=1954 | title=La antigua escritura de los pueblos de America Central | publisher=Fondo de Cultura Popular |Location=Mexico City
*cite book | year=1955 | title=Sistema Pis'ma Drevnikh Maiia| publisher=Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR |location=Moscow
*cite book | year=1956| title=Diego de Landa: Soobshchenie o delakh v Yukatani, 1566 | publisher=Akademia Nauk USSR |location=Moscow (Knorozov's doctoral dissertation)
*cite book | year=1963 | title=Pis'mennost Indeitsev Maiia| publisher=Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR |location=Moscow-Leningrad
*cite book| year=1967| chapter=The Writing of the Maya Indians | title=Russian Translation Series 4 |publisher=Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology |editor=Tatiana Proskouriakoff (Ed.) |others=Sophie Coe (trans.) | location=Cambridge MA.
*cite book| year=1975 |title=Ieroglificheskie Rukopisi Maiia |publisher=Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR |location=Leningrad
*cite book| year=1982| title=Maya Hieroglyphic Codices |publisher=Institute for Mesoamerican Studies |others=Sophie Coe (trans.) | location=Albany NY.
*cite book| year=1999| chapter=Comendio Xcaret de la escritura jeroglifica maya descifrada por Yuri V. Knorosov | title=Promotora Xcaret |publisher=Universidad de Quintana Roo| location=Mexico City
*cite book| year=2001| chapter=New data on the Maya written language | title=The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |editor=Stephen Houston, Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos and David Stuart, eds | location=Norman OK. |pages=pp.144-152

Others

*cite journal | year=1957 | title=Preliminary Report on the Study of the Written Language of Easter Island |journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society | volume=66 |issue=1| pages=pp.5–17 (on the Rongorongo script, with N.A. Butinov)
*cite book| year=1965 |title=Predvaritel’noe soobshchenie ob issledovanii protoindiyskikh textov |editor=Yuri Knorozov (ed.) |publisher=Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR|location=Moscow (Collated results of a research team under Knorozov investigating the Harappan script, with the use of computers)
*cite journal | year=1981 | title="Protoindiyskie nadpisi (k probleme deshifrovki)"| journal=Sovetskaya Etnografiya | volume=5 |issue=2| pages=pp.47–71 (on the Harappan script of the Indus Valley civilization)

See also

* Maya script
* Epigraphy
* J. Eric S. Thompson
* Tatiana Proskouriakoff

Notes

References

: cite web |author=aut|Bibliografía Mesoamericana|title=Knorozov, Yuri V. (index of works) |year=n.d.|publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. |url=http://www.famsi.org/research/bibliography.htm |accessdate=2006-08-01: cite book |author=aut|Coe, Michael D. |authorlink=Michael D. Coe |year=1987 |title=The Maya |edition=4th edition (revised) |series=Ancient peoples and places series|location=London and New York |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-27455-X |oclc=15895415 : cite journal |author=aut|Coe, Michael D. |authorlink=Michael D. Coe |year=1991 |month=September/October |title=A Triumph of Spirit: How Yuri Knorosov Cracked the Maya Hieroglyphic From Far-Off Leningrad |url=http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/COE-01.ART |format=online reproduction|journal=Archaeology |location=New York |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=pp.39–43 |issn=0003-8113 |oclc=1481828: cite book |author=aut|Coe, Michael D. |authorlink=Michael D. Coe |year=1992 |title=Breaking the Maya Code |location=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-05061-9 |oclc=26605966: cite book |author=aut|Coe, Michael D. |authorlink=Michael D. Coe |coauthors=and aut|Mark van Stone |year=2005 |title=Reading the Maya Glyphs |edition=2nd edition |location=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-28553-4 |oclc=60532227: cite web |author=aut|Drevnyaya MezoAmerika ( Древняя МезоАмерика )|title=Юрий Валентинович Кнорозов |year=2000 |url=http://mesoamerica.narod.ru/knorozov.html |accessdate=2006-07-27 ru icon : cite paper|author=aut|Gould, Arthur I.|year=1998|title=Alphabet Soup, Maya-style: A Historical Perspective of the Decipherment of the Written Text of the Ancient Maya Language | publisher=Chicago Literary Club | url=http://www.chilit.org/GOULD1.HTM | accessdate=2005-07-12: cite journal |author=aut|Hammond, Norman |authorlink=Norman Hammond |year=1999 |title=Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov (obituary) |journal=Antiquity |location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Antiquity Publications |volume=73 |pages=p.492|doi= |issn=0003-598X |oclc=1481624: cite book | author=aut|Houston, Stephen D. |authorlink=Stephen D. Houston |year=1989 |title=Reading the Past: Maya Glyphs |publisher=British Museum Publications |location=London |isbn=0-7141-8069-6 |oclc=18814390 : cite journal |author=aut|Kettunen, Harri J. |year=1998a |title=Relación de las cosas de San Petersburgo: An interview with Dr. Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov, Part I |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/ibero/xaman/articulos/9803/9803_hk.html |format=online publication|journal=Revista Xaman |volume=3/1998 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Ibero-American Center, Helsinki University |accessdate=2006-07-27 : cite journal |author=aut|Kettunen, Harri J. |year=1998b |title=Relación de las cosas de San Petersburgo: An interview with Dr. Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov, Part II |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/ibero/xaman/articulos/9805/9805_hk2.html |format=online publication|journal=Revista Xaman |volume=5/1998 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Ibero-American Center, Helsinki University |accessdate=2006-07-27: cite web | author=aut|People's History |title=Юрий Валентинович Кнорозов |year=n.d.| publisher=Peoples.ru History | url=http://www.peoples.ru/science/linguist/knorozov/ | accessdate=2005-07-19 ru icon: cite journal |author=aut|Stuart, David |authorlink=|authorlink=David Stuart (Mayanist)|year=1999 |title=The Maya Finally Speak: Decoding the Glyphs Unlocked Secrets of a Mighty Civilization |journal=Discovering Archaeology |publisher=Scientific American Inc.|volume=Nov/Dec |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya/speak.htm |accessdate=2006-08-01