History of the alphabet

The history of the alphabet begins in Ancient Egypt, more than a millennium into the history of writing. The first pure alphabet emerged around 2000 BCE to represent the language of Semitic workers in Egypt (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets), and was derived from the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Most alphabets in the world today either descend directly from this development, for example the Greek and Latin alphabets, or were inspired by its design. [Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", "Archaeology" 53, Issue 1 (Jan./Feb. 2000): 21.]

Pre-alphabetic scripts

Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Both were well known in the part of the Middle East that produced the first widely used alphabet, the Phoenician. There are signs that cuneiform was developing alphabetic properties in some of the languages it was adapted for, as was seen again later in the Old Persian cuneiform script, but it now appears these developments were a sideline and not ancestral to the alphabet. The Byblos syllabary has suggestive graphic similarities to both hieratic Egyptian and to the Phoenician alphabet, but as it is undeciphered, little can be said about its role, if any, in the history of the alphabet.

Early history

Beginnings in Egypt

By 2700 BCE the ancient Egyptians had developed a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to represent the individual consonants of their language, plus a 23^rd that seems to have represented word-initial or word-final vowels. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names. However, although alphabetic in nature, the system was not used for purely alphabetic writing. That is, while capable of being used as an alphabet, it was in fact always used with a strong logographic component, presumably due to strong cultural attachment to the complex Egyptian script. The first purely alphabetic script is thought to have been developed around 2000 BCE for Semitic workers in central Egypt. Over the next five centuries it spread north, and all subsequent alphabets around the world have either descended from it, or been inspired by one of its descendants, with the possible exception of the Meroitic alphabet, a 3rd century BCE adaptation of hieroglyphs in Nubia to the south of Egypt - though even here many scholars suspect the influence of that first alphabet.Fact|date=May 2007

emitic alphabet

The Middle Bronze Age scripts of Egypt have yet to be deciphered. However, they appear to be at least partially, and perhaps completely, alphabetic. The oldest examples are found as graffiti from central Egypt and date to around 1800 BCE [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/521235.stm] / [http://www.trussel.com/prehist/news170.htm] . [Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", "Archaeology" 53, Issue 1 (Jan./Feb. 2000): 21.] These inscriptions, according to Gordon J. Hamilton, are evidence that the place of the alphabet’s invention was likely in Egypt proper. [Hamilton, Gordon J. "W. F. Albright and Early Alphabetic Writing", "Near Eastern Archaeology" 65, No. 1 (Mar., 2002): 35-42. page 39-49.]

This Semitic script did not restrict itself to the existing Egyptian consonantal signs, but incorporated a number of other Egyptian hieroglyphs, for a total of perhaps thirty. It is thought, with no direct evidence, that they used Semitic rather than Egyptian names for them. [Hooker, J. T., C. B. F. Walker, W. V. Davies, John Chadwick, John F. Healey, B. F. Cook, and Larissa Bonfante, (1990). "Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet". Berkeley: University of California Press. pages 211-213.] So, for example, the hieroglyph "per" ("house" in Egyptian) became "bayt" ("house" in Semitic). [McCarter, P. Kyle. “The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet.” "The Biblical Archaeologist" 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 57.] It is unclear at this point whether these glyphs, when used to write the Semitic language, were purely alphabetic in nature, representing only the first consonant of their names according to the acrophonic principle, or whether they could also represent sequences of consonants or even words as their hieroglyphic ancestors had. For example, the "house" glyph may have stood only for "b" ("b" as in "beyt" "house"), or it may have stood for both the consonant "b" and the sequence "byt", as it had stood for both "p" and the sequence "pr" in Egyptian. However, by the time the script spread to Canaan, it was purely alphabetic, and the hieroglyph originally representing "house" stood only for "b". [Hooker, J. T., C. B. F. Walker, W. V. Davies, John Chadwick, John F. Healey, B. F. Cook, and Larissa Bonfante, (1990). "Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet", Berkeley: University of California Press. page 212.]

The first Canaanite state to make extensive use of the alphabet was Phoenicia, and so later stages of the Canaanite script are called Phoenician. Phoenicia was a maritime state at the center of a vast trade network, and soon the Phoenician alphabet spread throughout the Mediterranean. Two variants of the Phoenician alphabet would have major impacts on the history of writing: the Aramaic alphabet and the Greek alphabet. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890]

Descendants of the Aramaic abjad

The Phoenician and Aramaic alphabets, like their Egyptian prototype, represented only consonants, a system called an "abjad". The Aramaic alphabet, which evolved from the Phoenician in the 7th century BCE as the official script of the Persian Empire, appears to be the ancestor of nearly all the modern alphabets of Asia:
*The modern Hebrew alphabet started out as a local variant of Imperial Aramaic. (The original Hebrew alphabet has been retained by the Samaritans.) [Hooker, J. T., C. B. F. Walker, W. V. Davies, John Chadwick, John F. Healey, B. F. Cook, and Larissa Bonfante, (1990). "Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet", Berkeley: University of California Press. page 222.] [Robinson, Andrew, (1995). "The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms", New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd. page 172.]
*The Arabic alphabet descended from Aramaic via the Nabataean alphabet of what is now southern Jordan.
*The Syriac alphabet used after the 3rd century CE evolved, through Pahlavi and Sogdian, into the alphabets of northern Asia, such as Orkhon (probably), Uyghur, Mongolian, and Manchu.
*The Georgian alphabet is of uncertain provenance, but appears to be part of the Persian-Aramaic (or perhaps the Greek) family.
*The Aramaic alphabet is also the most likely ancestor of the Brahmic alphabets of the Indian subcontinent, which spread to Tibet, Mongolia, Indochina, and the Malay archipelago along with the Hindu and Buddhist religions. (China and Japan, while absorbing Buddhism, were already literate and retained their logographic and syllabic scripts.)
*The Hangul alphabet was invented in Korea in the 15th century. Tradition holds that it was an autonomous invention; however, Gari Ledyard suggests that portions of its consonantal system may be based on half a dozen letters derived from Tibetan via the imperial Phagspa alphabet of the Yuan dynasty of China; Tibetan is a Brahmic script. Uniquely among the world's alphabets, the rest of the consonants are derived from this core as a featural system. [Ledyard, Gari K. "The Korean Language Reform of 1446." Seoul: Shingu munhwasa, 1998.]

::Table: The spread of the alphabet west (Greek, Latin) and east (Brahmic, Korean). Note that the exact correspondence between Phoenician (through Aramaic) to Brahmic is uncertain, especially for the sibilants and the letters in parentheses. The transmission of the alphabet from Tibetan (through Phagspa) to Hangul is also controversial.

Greek alphabet

Transmission to Greece

By at least the 8th century BCE the Greeks borrowed the Phoenician alphabet and adapted it to their own language. [McCarter, P. Kyle. "The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet", "The Biblical Archaeologist" 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 62.] The letters of the Greek alphabet are the same as those of the Phoenician alphabet, and both alphabets are arranged in the same order. [McCarter, P. Kyle. "The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet", "The Biblical Archaeologist" 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 62.] However, whereas separate letters for vowels would have actually hindered the legibility of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Hebrew, their absence was problematic for Greek, where vowels played a much more important role. The Greeks adapted those Phoenician letters for consonants they couldn't pronounce to write vowels. All of the names of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet started with consonants, and these consonants were what the letters represented, something called the acrophonic principle. However, several Phoenician consonants were absent in Greek, and thus several letter names came to be pronounced with initial vowels. Since the start of the name of a letter was expected to be the sound of the letter, in Greek these letters now stood for vowels.Fact|date=May 2007 For example, the Greeks had no glottal stop or "h", so the Phoenician letters "’alep" and "he" became Greek "alpha" and "e" (later renamed "e psilon"), and stood for the vowels IPA|/a/ and IPA|/e/ rather than the consonants IPA|/ʔ/ and IPA|/h/. As this fortunate development only provided for five or six (depending on dialect) of the twelve Greek vowels, the Greeks eventually created digraphs and other modifications, such as "ei", "ou", and "o" (which became omega), or in some cases simply ignored the deficiency, as in long "a, i, u". [Robinson, Andrew, (1995). "The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms", New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd. page 170.]

Several varieties of the Greek alphabet developed. One, known as Western Greek or Chalcidian, was west of Athens and in southern Italy. The other variation, known as Eastern Greek, was used in present-day Turkey, and the Athenians, and eventually the rest of the world that spoke Greek adopted this variation. After first writing right to left, the Greeks eventually chose to write from left to right, unlike the Phoenicians who wrote from right to left.

Descendants of the Greek alphabet

Greek is in turn the source for all the modern scripts of Europe. The alphabet of the early western Greek dialects, where the letter eta remained an "h", gave rise to the Old Italic and Roman alphabets. In the eastern Greek dialects, which did not have an /h/, eta stood for a vowel, and remains a vowel in modern Greek and all other alphabets derived from the eastern variants: Glagolitic, Cyrillic, Armenian, Gothic (which used both Greek and Roman letters), and perhaps Georgian. [Robinson, Andrew. The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms. New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1995.] [BBC. "The Development of the Western Alphabet." [updated 8 April 2004; cited 1 May 2007] . Available from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890.]

Although this description presents the evolution of scripts in a linear fashion, this is a simplification. For example, the Manchu alphabet, descended from the abjads of West Asia, was also influenced by Korean hangul, which was either independent (the traditional view) or derived from the abugidas of South Asia. Georgian apparently derives from the Aramaic family, but was strongly influenced in its conception by Greek. The Greek alphabet, itself ultimately a derivative of hieroglyphs through that first Semitic alphabet, later adopted an additional half dozen demotic hieroglyphs when it was used to write Coptic Egyptian. Then there is Cree syllabics (an abugida), which appears to be a fusion of Devanagari and Pitman shorthand; the latter may be an independent invention, but likely has its ultimate origins in cursive Latin script. Fact|date=May 2007

Development of the Roman alphabet

A tribe known as the Latins, who became known as the Romans, also lived in the Italian peninsula like the Western Greeks. From the Etruscans, a tribe living in the first millennium BCE in central Italy, and the Western Greeks, the Latins adopted writing in about the fifth century. In adopted writing from these two groups, the Latins dropped four characters from the Western Greek alphabet. They also adapted the Etruscan letter F, pronounced 'w,' giving it the 'f' sound, and the Etruscan S, which had three zigzag lines, was curved to make the modern S. To represent the G sound in Greek and the K sound in Etruscan, the Gamma was used. These changes produced the modern alphabet without the letters G, J, U, W, Y, and Z, as well as some other differences.

C, K, and Q in the Romans’ alphabet could all be used to write the k sound, and C could also be used to write the sound 'g.' The Romans invented the letter G and inserted it into the alphabet between F and H for an unknown reason. Over the few centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the Eastern Mediterranean and other areas in the third century BCE, the Romans began to borrow Greek words, so they had to adapt their alphabet again in order to write these words. From the Eastern Greek alphabet, they borrowed Y and Z, which were added to the end of the alphabet because the only time they were used was to write Greek words.

The Anglo-Saxons began using Roman letters to write Old English as they converted to Christianity, following Augustine of Canterbury's mission to Britain in the sixth century. Because the Runic "wen", which was first used to represent the sound 'w' and looked like a p that is narrow and triangular, was easy to confuse with an actual p, the 'w' sound began to be written using a double u. Because the u at the time looked like a v, the double u looked like two v's, W was placed in the alphabet by V. U developed when people began to use the rounded U when they meant the vowel u and the pointed V when the meant the consonant V. J began as a variation of I, in which a long tail was added to the final I when there were several in a row. People began to use the J for the consonant and the I for the vowel by the fifteenth century, and it was fully accepted in the mid-seventeenth century.

Letter names and sequence of some alphabets

The order of the letters of the alphabet is attested from the fourteenth century BCE, in a place called Ugarit located on Syria’s northern coast. [Robinson, Andrew, (1995). "The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms", New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd. page 162.] Tablets found there bear over one thousand cuneiform signs, but these signs are not Babylonian, and there are only thirty distinct characters. About twelve of the tablets have the signs set out in alphabetic order. There are two orders found, one which is nearly identical to the order used for Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and a second order very similar to that used for Ethiopian. [Millard, A.R. "The Infancy of the Alphabet", "World Archaeology" 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems (Feb., 1986): 390-398. page 395.]

It is not known how many letters the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet had, nor what their alphabetic order was. Among its descendants, the Ugaritic alphabet had 27 consonants, the South Arabian alphabets had 29, and the Phoenician alphabet was reduced to 22. These scripts were arranged in two orders, an "ABGDE" order in Phoenician, and an "HMĦLQ" order in the south; Ugaritic preserved both orders. Both sequences proved remarkably stable among the descendants of these scripts.

The letter names proved stable among many descendants of Phoenician, including Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, and Greek alphabet. However, they were abandoned in Arabic and Latin. The letter sequence continued more or less intact into Latin, Armenian, Gothic, and Cyrillic, but was abandoned in Brahmi, Runic, and Arabic, although a traditional "abjadi order" remains or was re-introduced as an alternative in the latter.

The table is a schematic of the Phoenician alphabet and its descendants.

These 22 consonants account for the phonology of Northwest Semitic. Of the reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants, seven are missing: theinterdental fricatives transl|sem|ḏ, ṯ, ṱ, the voiceless lateral fricatives transl|sem|ś, ṣ́, the voiced uvular fricative transl|sem|ġ, and the distinction between uvular and pharyngeal voiceless fricatives transl|sem|ḫ, ḥ, in Canaanite merged in transl|sem|ḥet. The six variant letters added in the Arabic alphabet account for these (except for transl|sem|ś, which survives as a separate phoneme in Ge'ez Unicode|ሠ): transl|sem|ḏ > Unicode|ḏāl;transl|sem|ṯ > Unicode|ṯāʼ;transl|sem|ṱ > Unicode|ḍād;transl|sem|ġ > Unicode|ġayn;transl|sem|ṣ́ > Unicode|ẓāʼ;

Graphically independent alphabets

The only modern national alphabet that has not been graphically traced back to the Canaanite alphabet is the Maldivian script, which is unique in that, although it is clearly modeled after Arabic and perhaps other existing alphabets, it derives its letter forms from numerals. The Osmanya alphabet devised for Somali in the 1920s was co-official in Somalia with the Latin alphabet until 1972, and the forms of its consonants appear to be complete innovations.

Among alphabets that are not used as national scripts today, a few are clearly independent in their letter forms. The Zhuyin phonetic alphabet derives from Chinese characters. The Santali alphabet of eastern India appears to be based on traditional symbols such as "danger" and "meeting place", as well as pictographs invented by its creator. (The names of the Santali letters are related to the sound they represent through the acrophonic principle, as in the original alphabet, but it is the "final" consonant or vowel of the name that the letter represents: "le" "swelling" represents "e", while "en" "thresh grain" represents "n".)

In the ancient world, Ogham consisted of tally marks, and the monumental inscriptions of the Old Persian Empire were written in an essentially alphabetic cuneiform script whose letter forms seem to have been created for the occasion.

Alphabets in other media

Changes to a new writing medium sometimes caused a break in graphical form, or make the relationship difficult to trace. It is not immediately obvious that the cuneiform Ugaritic alphabet derives from a prototypical Semitic abjad, for example, although this appears to be the case. And while manual alphabets are a direct continuation of the local written alphabet (both the British two-handed and the French/American one-handed alphabets retain the forms of the Latin alphabet, as the Indian manual alphabet does Devanagari, and the Korean does Hangul), Braille, semaphore, maritime signal flags, and the Morse codes are essentially arbitrary geometric forms. The shapes of the English Braille and semaphore letters, for example, are derived from the alphabetic order of the Latin alphabet, but not from the graphic forms of the letters themselves. Modern shorthand also appears to be graphically unrelated. If it derives from the Latin alphabet, the connection has been lost to history. Fact|date=May 2007

ee also

* Genealogy of scripts derived from Proto-Sinaitic
* History of writing
* List of inventors of writing systems
* List of languages by first written accounts
* History of the Latin alphabet
* History of the Arabic alphabet

References

Further reading

* Peter T. Daniels, William Bright (eds.), 1996. "The World's Writing Systems", ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
* David Diringer, "History of the Alphabet", 1977, ISBN 0-905418-12-3.
* Stephen R. Fischer, "A History of Writing" 2005 Reaktion Books CN 136481
* Joel M. Hoffman, "In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language", 2004, ISBN 0-8147-3654-8.
* Robert K. Logan, "The Alphabet Effect: The Impact of the Phonetic Alphabet on the Development of Western Civilization", New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986.
* Joseph Naveh, "Early History of the Alphabet: an Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Palaeography" (Magnes Press - Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1982)
* B.L. Ullman, "The Origin and Development of the Alphabet," "American Journal of Archaeology" 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1927): 311-328.

External links

* [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Animated examples of how the English alphabet evolved]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A216073 BBC site for the Greek alphabet]
* [http://www.greek-language.com/alphabet/ Site by a scholar about the Greek alphabet]
* [http://www.grecoreport.com/phoenician.htm Article republished from an Athenian newspaper]
* [http://www.ling.lu.se/education/homepages/ALS061/DEMO/INTR3/IntroScript.html Information about the Georgian Script]
* [http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/oldcivilization/phoenicia/phoenicianalphabet/familytree.html An alphabetic 'family tree'] .
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20031218.shtml "The Alphabet – its creation and development"] on BBC Radio 4’s "In Our Time" featuring Eleanor Robson, Alan Millard, Rosalind Thomas